Evolution of dog breeds: Difference between revisions
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Peer review comments - Steven Lemp |
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= '''Evolution of Dog Breeds''' = |
= '''Evolution of Dog Breeds''' = |
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Over the last 100 year’s different breeds of dogs have changed dramatically.<!-- I recommend rephrasing the first sentence, a possible option could be this, "Over the last 100 years domesticated dog breeds have dramatically changed."-GW --><!-- I second the first comment. This first sentence needs to be restructured. -JM --> Some dogs have been bred to look a certain way, act a certain way, and even obtain a certain color<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Irion|first=D. N.|date=2003-01-01|title=Analysis of Genetic Variation in 28 Dog Breed Populations With 100 Microsatellite Markers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esg004|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=94|issue=1|pages=81–87|doi=10.1093/jhered/esg004|issn=1471-8505}}</ref>.<!-- Rephrase, shorten sentence by removing clutter words.-GW --> The American Kennel Club has a database that recognizes about 150 different breeds that are registered by dog owners around the world<ref name=":0" />. Different<!-- Recommend changing "Different breeds of dogs" to "Certain dog breeds".-GW --> breeds of dogs are very popular among people and some will pay large amounts of money for a particular breed. Many dogs have been bred for different reasons<!-- Start the comma after "reasons", and possibly rephrase sentence to say , "and this has lead to different issues in many pure-bred dogs today."-GW --> and today, this can cause many different issues in different pure-bred dogs. Studies have shown that dogs are being bred more for social influences rather than for<!-- Remove "for".-GW --> functionality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghirlanda|first=Stefano|last2=Acerbi|first2=Alberto|last3=Herzog|first3=Harold|last4=Serpell|first4=James A.|date=2013-09-11|title=Fashion vs. Function in Cultural Evolution: The Case of Dog Breed Popularity|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074770|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|issue=9|pages=e74770|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074770|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>. Despite dogs being the most phenotypically diverse group of mammals in the world<!-- I feel like this statement could use a citation. Although that may be common knowledge to some people, having a citation to accompany it would benefit the statement. -JM -->, the evolution dogs have undergone is very obvious in most breeds because of how differently they look today as compared to the past.<!-- Possibly rephrase, elaborate how selective breeding has had a direct correlation to dog breed evolution.-GW --> |
Over the last 100 year’s<!-- This does not need an apostrophe - Steven --> different breeds of dogs have changed dramatically.<!-- I recommend rephrasing the first sentence, a possible option could be this, "Over the last 100 years domesticated dog breeds have dramatically changed."-GW --><!-- I second the first comment. This first sentence needs to be restructured. -JM --> Some dogs have been bred to look a certain way, act a certain way, and even obtain a certain color<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Irion|first=D. N.|date=2003-01-01|title=Analysis of Genetic Variation in 28 Dog Breed Populations With 100 Microsatellite Markers|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esg004|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=94|issue=1|pages=81–87|doi=10.1093/jhered/esg004|issn=1471-8505}}</ref>.<!-- Rephrase, shorten sentence by removing clutter words.-GW --> The American Kennel Club has a database that recognizes about 150 different breeds that are registered by dog owners around the world<ref name=":0" />. Different<!-- Recommend changing "Different breeds of dogs" to "Certain dog breeds".-GW --> breeds of dogs are very popular among people and some will pay large amounts of money for a particular breed.<!-- I'm not sure this sentence is that necessary - something more related to dog genetics might fit better (like referencing what the rest of the article will be covering) - Steven --> Many dogs have been bred for different reasons<!-- Start the comma after "reasons", and possibly rephrase sentence to say , "and this has lead to different issues in many pure-bred dogs today."-GW --> and today, this can cause many different issues in different pure-bred dogs. Studies have shown that dogs are being bred more for social influences rather than for<!-- Remove "for".-GW --> functionality<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ghirlanda|first=Stefano|last2=Acerbi|first2=Alberto|last3=Herzog|first3=Harold|last4=Serpell|first4=James A.|date=2013-09-11|title=Fashion vs. Function in Cultural Evolution: The Case of Dog Breed Popularity|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074770|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=8|issue=9|pages=e74770|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074770|issn=1932-6203}}</ref>. Despite dogs being the most phenotypically diverse group of mammals in the world<!-- I feel like this statement could use a citation. Although that may be common knowledge to some people, having a citation to accompany it would benefit the statement. -JM -->, the evolution dogs have undergone is very obvious in most breeds because of how differently they look today as compared to the past.<!-- Possibly rephrase, elaborate how selective breeding has had a direct correlation to dog breed evolution.-GW --> |
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== History == |
== History == |
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The domestic dog (''Canis familiaris'') has a closer relationship with humans and is morphologically the most diverse compared to any other mammal. Dogs come from the family Canidae which dates back to over 50 million years ago. Dogs are very closely related and even derived from gray wolves (''Canis lupus'') but still obtain very diverse mitochondrial and nuclear genes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vila|first=C.|date=1999-01-01|title=Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity of the domestic dog|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/90.1.71|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=90|issue=1|pages=71–77|doi=10.1093/jhered/90.1.71|issn=1471-8505}}</ref>. The domestic dog is the only large carnivore to have ever become domesticated and first appeared with humans over 30,000 years ago. It is suggested based on nuclear genetic evidence that dogs originated from wolf populations in Europe and the Middle East but <!-- consider "Europe and the Middle East, however, mitochondrial..." instead of but -->mitochondrial evidence suggests that dogs originated from wolf populations located in East Asia <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Wayne|first=Robert K.|last2=vonHoldt|first2=Bridgett M.|date=2012-01-22|title=Evolutionary genomics of dog domestication|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7|journal=Mammalian Genome|volume=23|issue=1-2|pages=3–18|doi=10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7|issn=0938-8990}}</ref>. Data also suggests that dogs may have been domesticated more than once independently with two different common ancestors. The common ancestors are known as the Sarloos and the Newgrange dog. Each of these breeds are the common ancestor to domestic dogs today but both of these breeds were derived from wolf populations<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.26636|title=Mitochondrial diversity of Bulgarian native dogs suggests dual phylogenetic origin|last=Marinov|first=Miroslav|last2=Teofanova|first2=Denitsa|date=2018-03-07|website=dx.doi.org|access-date=2019-03-04|last3=Radoslavov|first3=Georgi|last4=Hristov|first4=Peter I}}</ref>. |
The domestic dog (''Canis familiaris'') has a closer relationship with humans and is morphologically the most diverse compared to any other mammal. Dogs come from the family Canidae which dates back to over 50 million years ago. Dogs are very closely related and even derived from gray wolves (''Canis lupus'') but still obtain very diverse mitochondrial and nuclear genes<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Vila|first=C.|date=1999-01-01|title=Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity of the domestic dog|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/90.1.71|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=90|issue=1|pages=71–77|doi=10.1093/jhered/90.1.71|issn=1471-8505}}</ref>. The domestic dog is the only large carnivore to have ever become domesticated and first appeared with humans over 30,000 years ago. It is suggested based on nuclear genetic evidence that dogs originated from wolf populations in Europe and the Middle East but <!-- consider "Europe and the Middle East, however, mitochondrial..." instead of but -->mitochondrial evidence suggests that dogs originated from wolf populations located in East Asia <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Wayne|first=Robert K.|last2=vonHoldt|first2=Bridgett M.|date=2012-01-22|title=Evolutionary genomics of dog domestication|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7|journal=Mammalian Genome|volume=23|issue=1-2|pages=3–18|doi=10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7|issn=0938-8990}}</ref>. Data also suggests that dogs may have been domesticated more than once independently with two different common ancestors. The common ancestors are known as the Sarloos and the Newgrange dog. Each of these breeds are the common ancestor to domestic dogs today but both of these breeds were derived from wolf populations<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.26636|title=Mitochondrial diversity of Bulgarian native dogs suggests dual phylogenetic origin|last=Marinov|first=Miroslav|last2=Teofanova|first2=Denitsa|date=2018-03-07|website=dx.doi.org|access-date=2019-03-04|last3=Radoslavov|first3=Georgi|last4=Hristov|first4=Peter I}}</ref>. |
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== Evolution of Breeds<!-- I'd recommend breaking this section up with subheadings, it's a big block of text as is. You could go as far as breaking it up by breed, although that may be a bit much. - Steven --> == |
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== Evolution of Breeds == |
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Each breed of dog is unique and breeds<!-- Remove "breeds".-GW --> come from all over the world and evolution has really played a large role in the way each breed looks, acts, and lives. Some breeds were found or created before others and many of the most popular breeds in America actually came from Europe. The American Kingdom Kennel Club recognizes 150 breeds and puts them into seven groups: Sporting, Working, Toy, Herding, Hound, Terrier, and Non-sporting.<!-- I don't think these categories need to be capitalized. -JM --> According to the American Kennel Club, the top 10 breeds of dogs include: Labrador Retriever, German Shepard, Golden Retriever, French Bulldog, Bulldog, Beagle, Poodle, Rottweiler, Yorkshire Terrier, and German Shorthaired Pointer<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/what-are-breed-groups/|title=The 7 Dog Breed Groups Explained|website=American Kennel Club|language=en|access-date=2019-03-05}}</ref>. Over the years, these breeds have dramatically changed but some have changed more than others. Some breeds of dogs that have noticeably changed over the last 100 years are the Bull Terrier, Basset Hound, English Bulldog, German Shepard, Boxer, Dachshund, Pug, Kerry Blue Terrier, and the Saint Bernard. Over 100 years ago<!-- Insert a comma, and add "the".-GW --> <!-- I second the first comment. -JM -->Saint Bernard was used as a working dog and accompanied their and aided them with assistance.<!-- Possibly adjust or remove this sentence.-GW --> In 1850, people started breeding the Saint Bernard for certain morphological characteristics that were necessary for dog shows. One of the largest changes in the Saint Bernard is the shape of their skull. The standards for the breed now include having a skull that is large in size and has cheek bones<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drake|first=Abby Grace|last2=Klingenberg|first2=Christian Peter|date=2008-01-07|title=The pace of morphological change: historical transformation of skull shape in St Bernard dogs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2007.1169|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=275|issue=1630|pages=71–76|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1169|issn=0962-8452}}</ref>. The Kerry Blue Terrier used to be unapproved due to their appearance but then were bred to obtain the standards of the Kennel Club which includes a muscular body, long head, dark eyes, and a blue coat color<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/681630333|title=The complete dog book.|last=Club.|first=American Kennel|date=2006|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=9780307416995|oclc=681630333}}</ref>. When the Bull Terrier was first originated as a breed, it had an athletic body with a rounder shaped skull but over years of breeding, it has now obtained a nose that angulates more ventrally<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Farrell|first=Lindsay L|last2=Schoenebeck|first2=Jeffrey J|last3=Wiener|first3=Pamela|last4=Clements|first4=Dylan N|last5=Summers|first5=Kim M|date=2015-12|title=The challenges of pedigree dog health: approaches to combating inherited disease|url=http://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-015-0014-9|journal=Canine Genetics and Epidemiology|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s40575-015-0014-9|issn=2052-6687|pmc=PMC4579364|pmid=26401331}}</ref>. The Basset Hound used to obtain<!-- Possibly change "obtain" to "have.-GW --> a shorter body with hind legs that stood more straight in bone structures as well as shorter ears. Now, they are bred to have longer bodies with a slight angle in the hind legs and ears much longer in length. The English Bulldog is one of a few breed that has a trait known as brachycephalic, which means compact face and cranium<ref name=":2" />. Many years ago the English Bulldog was a breed that obtained a more muscular body type with skin that was tighter to its body. Today, English Bulldogs are bred for more wrinkles in their skin, large and flat faced heads, and legs that are bowed<ref name=":3" />. The German Shepard was a smaller large-breed dog that stood tall in all four legs. Now, the German Shepard is bred to be much larger in size with a slight slant in their back and hind legs and<!-- Needs a comma after "and" -JM --> according to the AKC standards, any back dew claws on a German Shepard must be removed<ref name=":1" />. Years ago the Boxer, also a brachycephalic breed, obtained a longer muzzle and now has been bred to obtain a muzzle even shorter than before. The Dachshund has always had short legs but when this breed was first originated, they consisted of shorter backs and their chests were proportional to their bodies. The present day dachshund breed now has much longer bodies with a more protruding chest as well as even shorter legs than previous generations. Lastly, the Pug has had evolutionary changes similar to those of the boxer as they also have the brachycephalic trait. While pugs were always smaller, they used to have a longer muzzle that has now been bred to be extremely short. Along with the shorter muzzle, pugs have also been bred to have a tail that curls twice rather than their normal singular curled tail they had many years ago. The book "Dogs of All Nations" written by Walter Esplin Mason shows pictures of what these breeds of dogs used to look like and the characteristics of these breeds today can be compared to the way they used to look. Over the years, these breeds have gone through many changes morphologically as well as physiologically. Evolution has played a huge role in breeds of dogs and humans might be the cause of these evolutionary changes. |
Each breed of dog is unique and breeds<!-- Remove "breeds".-GW --> come from all over the world and evolution has really played a large role in the way each breed looks, acts, and lives. Some breeds were found or created before others and many of the most popular breeds in America actually came from Europe. The American Kingdom Kennel Club recognizes 150 breeds and puts them into seven groups: Sporting, Working, Toy, Herding, Hound, Terrier, and Non-sporting.<!-- I don't think these categories need to be capitalized. -JM --> According to the American Kennel Club, the top 10 breeds of dogs include: Labrador Retriever, German Shepard, Golden Retriever, French Bulldog, Bulldog, Beagle, Poodle, Rottweiler, Yorkshire Terrier, and German Shorthaired Pointer<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/what-are-breed-groups/|title=The 7 Dog Breed Groups Explained|website=American Kennel Club|language=en|access-date=2019-03-05}}</ref>. Over the years, these breeds have dramatically changed but some have changed more than others. Some breeds of dogs that have noticeably changed over the last 100 years are the Bull Terrier, Basset Hound, English Bulldog, German Shepard, Boxer, Dachshund, Pug, Kerry Blue Terrier, and the Saint Bernard. Over 100 years ago<!-- Insert a comma, and add "the".-GW --> <!-- I second the first comment. -JM -->Saint Bernard was used as a working dog and accompanied their and aided them with assistance.<!-- Possibly adjust or remove this sentence.-GW --> In 1850, people started breeding the Saint Bernard for certain morphological characteristics that were necessary for dog shows. One of the largest changes in the Saint Bernard is the shape of their skull. The standards for the breed now include having a skull that is large in size and has cheek bones<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Drake|first=Abby Grace|last2=Klingenberg|first2=Christian Peter|date=2008-01-07|title=The pace of morphological change: historical transformation of skull shape in St Bernard dogs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2007.1169|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=275|issue=1630|pages=71–76|doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1169|issn=0962-8452}}</ref>. The Kerry Blue Terrier used to be unapproved due to their appearance but then were bred to obtain the standards of the Kennel Club which includes a muscular body, long head, dark eyes, and a blue coat color<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/681630333|title=The complete dog book.|last=Club.|first=American Kennel|date=2006|publisher=Ballantine Books|isbn=9780307416995|oclc=681630333}}</ref>. When the Bull Terrier was first originated as a breed, it had an athletic body with a rounder shaped skull but over years of breeding, it has now obtained a nose that angulates more ventrally<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Farrell|first=Lindsay L|last2=Schoenebeck|first2=Jeffrey J|last3=Wiener|first3=Pamela|last4=Clements|first4=Dylan N|last5=Summers|first5=Kim M|date=2015-12|title=The challenges of pedigree dog health: approaches to combating inherited disease|url=http://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-015-0014-9|journal=Canine Genetics and Epidemiology|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s40575-015-0014-9|issn=2052-6687|pmc=PMC4579364|pmid=26401331}}</ref>. The Basset Hound used to obtain<!-- Possibly change "obtain" to "have.-GW --> a shorter body with hind legs that stood more straight in bone structures as well as shorter ears. Now, they are bred to have longer bodies with a slight angle in the hind legs and ears much longer in length. The English Bulldog is one of a few breed that has a trait known as brachycephalic, which means compact face and cranium<ref name=":2" />. Many years ago the English Bulldog was a breed that obtained a more muscular body type with skin that was tighter to its body. Today, English Bulldogs are bred for more wrinkles in their skin, large and flat faced heads, and legs that are bowed<ref name=":3" />. The German Shepard was a smaller large-breed dog that stood tall in all four legs. Now, the German Shepard is bred to be much larger in size with a slight slant in their back and hind legs and<!-- Needs a comma after "and" -JM --> according to the AKC standards, any back dew claws on a German Shepard must be removed<ref name=":1" />. Years ago the Boxer, also a brachycephalic breed, obtained a longer muzzle and now has been bred to obtain a muzzle even shorter than before. The Dachshund has always had short legs but when this breed was first originated, they consisted of shorter backs and their chests were proportional to their bodies. The present day dachshund breed now has much longer bodies with a more protruding chest as well as even shorter legs than previous generations. Lastly, the Pug has had evolutionary changes similar to those of the boxer as they also have the brachycephalic trait. While pugs were always smaller, they used to have a longer muzzle that has now been bred to be extremely short. Along with the shorter muzzle, pugs have also been bred to have a tail that curls twice rather than their normal singular curled tail they had many years ago. The book "Dogs of All Nations" written by Walter Esplin Mason shows pictures of what these breeds of dogs used to look like and the characteristics of these breeds today can be compared to the way they used to look. Over the years, these breeds have gone through many changes morphologically as well as physiologically. Evolution has played a huge role in breeds of dogs and humans might be the cause of these evolutionary changes. |
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== DNA Testing == |
== DNA Testing == |
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DNA testing in dogs is becoming<!-- Suggest rephrasing to "has become".-GW --> more common. These tests are used for multiple reasons including genetic proof to identify a breed as well as identification of mutations that cause diseases<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Shaffer|first=Lisa G.|last2=Sundin|first2=Kyle|last3=Geretschlaeger|first3=Anja|last4=Segert|first4=Julia|last5=Swinburne|first5=June E.|last6=Royal|first6=Ramon|last7=Loechel|first7=Robert|last8=Ramirez|first8=Christina J.|last9=Ballif|first9=Blake C.|date=2018-11-13|title=Standards and guidelines for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00439-018-1954-4|journal=Human Genetics|doi=10.1007/s00439-018-1954-4|issn=0340-6717}}</ref><!-- Consider restructuring this sentence. JM -->. It has been shown that in some breeds, such as the German Shepard, that DNA testing can be useful in identifying inbreeding within these dogs. these<!-- Capitalize - JM --> tests can show the limited genetic diversity of breeds which can in turn help with identifying diseases that are found within those dogs<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keijser|first=S. F. A.|last2=Fieten|first2=H.|last3=Vos-Loohuis|first3=M.|last4=Piek|first4=C. J.|last5=Anderson|first5=H.|last6=Donner|first6=J.|last7=Scholten|first7=I.|last8=Nielen|first8=M.|last9=Hesselink|first9=J. W.|date=2018-12|title=Heterozygosity testing and multiplex DNA panel screening as a potential tool to monitor health and inbreeding in a small, closed dog population|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40575-018-0068-6|journal=Canine Genetics and Epidemiology|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s40575-018-0068-6|issn=2052-6687}}</ref>. Genetic diseases are very common among dogs and has also been shown in mixed breeds just as commonly as purebreds. Using DNA testing, it is possible to find out what types of breeds run within a dogs genes as well as the diseases that run within the generations of these dogs<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Donner|first=Jonas|last2=Anderson|first2=Heidi|last3=Davison|first3=Stephen|last4=Hughes|first4=Angela M.|last5=Bouirmane|first5=Julia|last6=Lindqvist|first6=Johan|last7=Lytle|first7=Katherine M.|last8=Ganesan|first8=Balasubramanian|last9=Ottka|first9=Claudia|date=2019-01-18|title=Correction: Frequency and distribution of 152 genetic disease variants in over 100,000 mixed breed and purebred dogs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007938|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=15|issue=1|pages=e1007938|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007938|issn=1553-7404}}</ref>. To perform a DNA test, a sample type including blood, cheek swab, etc<!-- Possibly remove "etc".-GW --> should be collected from the dog being tested. From there, the samples will be sent to a laboratory where the specimen are<!-- Possibly change "are" to "is". -GW --> maintained in a desired temperature. While in the laboratory, the test will be ran by trained personnel and then analyzed for validation. Once the DNA is determined, the test results will be sent back with a detailed description of the genetic sequences within the sample. These test results will show any genetic evidence within the dog as well as any genetic mutations that have been discovered<ref name=":5" />. |
DNA testing in dogs is becoming<!-- Suggest rephrasing to "has become".-GW --> more common. These tests are used for multiple reasons including genetic proof to identify a breed as well as identification of mutations that cause diseases<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Shaffer|first=Lisa G.|last2=Sundin|first2=Kyle|last3=Geretschlaeger|first3=Anja|last4=Segert|first4=Julia|last5=Swinburne|first5=June E.|last6=Royal|first6=Ramon|last7=Loechel|first7=Robert|last8=Ramirez|first8=Christina J.|last9=Ballif|first9=Blake C.|date=2018-11-13|title=Standards and guidelines for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00439-018-1954-4|journal=Human Genetics|doi=10.1007/s00439-018-1954-4|issn=0340-6717}}</ref><!-- Consider restructuring this sentence. JM -->. It has been shown that in some breeds, such as the German Shepard, that DNA testing can be useful in identifying inbreeding within these dogs. <!-- Capitalize! - Steven -->these<!-- Capitalize - JM --> tests can show the limited genetic diversity of breeds which can in turn help with identifying diseases that are found within those dogs<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keijser|first=S. F. A.|last2=Fieten|first2=H.|last3=Vos-Loohuis|first3=M.|last4=Piek|first4=C. J.|last5=Anderson|first5=H.|last6=Donner|first6=J.|last7=Scholten|first7=I.|last8=Nielen|first8=M.|last9=Hesselink|first9=J. W.|date=2018-12|title=Heterozygosity testing and multiplex DNA panel screening as a potential tool to monitor health and inbreeding in a small, closed dog population|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40575-018-0068-6|journal=Canine Genetics and Epidemiology|volume=5|issue=1|doi=10.1186/s40575-018-0068-6|issn=2052-6687}}</ref>. Genetic diseases are very common among dogs and has<!-- "have" instead of "has" if you're referring to multiple diseases - Steven --> also been shown in mixed breeds just as commonly as purebreds. Using DNA testing, it is possible to find out what types of breeds run within a dogs<!-- "dog's" instead of "dogs" - Steven --> genes as well as the diseases that run within the generations of these dogs<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Donner|first=Jonas|last2=Anderson|first2=Heidi|last3=Davison|first3=Stephen|last4=Hughes|first4=Angela M.|last5=Bouirmane|first5=Julia|last6=Lindqvist|first6=Johan|last7=Lytle|first7=Katherine M.|last8=Ganesan|first8=Balasubramanian|last9=Ottka|first9=Claudia|date=2019-01-18|title=Correction: Frequency and distribution of 152 genetic disease variants in over 100,000 mixed breed and purebred dogs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007938|journal=PLOS Genetics|volume=15|issue=1|pages=e1007938|doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1007938|issn=1553-7404}}</ref>. To perform a DNA test, a sample type including blood, cheek swab, etc<!-- Possibly remove "etc".-GW --> should be collected from the dog being tested. From there, the samples will be sent to a laboratory where the specimen are<!-- Possibly change "are" to "is". -GW --> maintained in a desired temperature. While in the laboratory, the test will be ran by trained personnel and then analyzed for validation. Once the DNA is determined, the test results will be sent back with a detailed description of the genetic sequences within the sample. These test results will show any genetic evidence within the dog as well as any genetic mutations that have been discovered<ref name=":5" />. |
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== References == |
== References == |
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Revision as of 11:14, 31 March 2019
Evolution of Dog Breeds
Over the last 100 year’s different breeds of dogs have changed dramatically. Some dogs have been bred to look a certain way, act a certain way, and even obtain a certain color[1]. The American Kennel Club has a database that recognizes about 150 different breeds that are registered by dog owners around the world[1]. Different breeds of dogs are very popular among people and some will pay large amounts of money for a particular breed. Many dogs have been bred for different reasons and today, this can cause many different issues in different pure-bred dogs. Studies have shown that dogs are being bred more for social influences rather than for functionality[2]. Despite dogs being the most phenotypically diverse group of mammals in the world, the evolution dogs have undergone is very obvious in most breeds because of how differently they look today as compared to the past.
History
The domestic dog (Canis familiaris) has a closer relationship with humans and is morphologically the most diverse compared to any other mammal. Dogs come from the family Canidae which dates back to over 50 million years ago. Dogs are very closely related and even derived from gray wolves (Canis lupus) but still obtain very diverse mitochondrial and nuclear genes[3]. The domestic dog is the only large carnivore to have ever become domesticated and first appeared with humans over 30,000 years ago. It is suggested based on nuclear genetic evidence that dogs originated from wolf populations in Europe and the Middle East but mitochondrial evidence suggests that dogs originated from wolf populations located in East Asia [4]. Data also suggests that dogs may have been domesticated more than once independently with two different common ancestors. The common ancestors are known as the Sarloos and the Newgrange dog. Each of these breeds are the common ancestor to domestic dogs today but both of these breeds were derived from wolf populations[5].
Evolution of Breeds
Each breed of dog is unique and breeds come from all over the world and evolution has really played a large role in the way each breed looks, acts, and lives. Some breeds were found or created before others and many of the most popular breeds in America actually came from Europe. The American Kingdom Kennel Club recognizes 150 breeds and puts them into seven groups: Sporting, Working, Toy, Herding, Hound, Terrier, and Non-sporting. According to the American Kennel Club, the top 10 breeds of dogs include: Labrador Retriever, German Shepard, Golden Retriever, French Bulldog, Bulldog, Beagle, Poodle, Rottweiler, Yorkshire Terrier, and German Shorthaired Pointer[6]. Over the years, these breeds have dramatically changed but some have changed more than others. Some breeds of dogs that have noticeably changed over the last 100 years are the Bull Terrier, Basset Hound, English Bulldog, German Shepard, Boxer, Dachshund, Pug, Kerry Blue Terrier, and the Saint Bernard. Over 100 years ago Saint Bernard was used as a working dog and accompanied their and aided them with assistance. In 1850, people started breeding the Saint Bernard for certain morphological characteristics that were necessary for dog shows. One of the largest changes in the Saint Bernard is the shape of their skull. The standards for the breed now include having a skull that is large in size and has cheek bones[7]. The Kerry Blue Terrier used to be unapproved due to their appearance but then were bred to obtain the standards of the Kennel Club which includes a muscular body, long head, dark eyes, and a blue coat color[8]. When the Bull Terrier was first originated as a breed, it had an athletic body with a rounder shaped skull but over years of breeding, it has now obtained a nose that angulates more ventrally[9]. The Basset Hound used to obtain a shorter body with hind legs that stood more straight in bone structures as well as shorter ears. Now, they are bred to have longer bodies with a slight angle in the hind legs and ears much longer in length. The English Bulldog is one of a few breed that has a trait known as brachycephalic, which means compact face and cranium[4]. Many years ago the English Bulldog was a breed that obtained a more muscular body type with skin that was tighter to its body. Today, English Bulldogs are bred for more wrinkles in their skin, large and flat faced heads, and legs that are bowed[9]. The German Shepard was a smaller large-breed dog that stood tall in all four legs. Now, the German Shepard is bred to be much larger in size with a slight slant in their back and hind legs and according to the AKC standards, any back dew claws on a German Shepard must be removed[8]. Years ago the Boxer, also a brachycephalic breed, obtained a longer muzzle and now has been bred to obtain a muzzle even shorter than before. The Dachshund has always had short legs but when this breed was first originated, they consisted of shorter backs and their chests were proportional to their bodies. The present day dachshund breed now has much longer bodies with a more protruding chest as well as even shorter legs than previous generations. Lastly, the Pug has had evolutionary changes similar to those of the boxer as they also have the brachycephalic trait. While pugs were always smaller, they used to have a longer muzzle that has now been bred to be extremely short. Along with the shorter muzzle, pugs have also been bred to have a tail that curls twice rather than their normal singular curled tail they had many years ago. The book "Dogs of All Nations" written by Walter Esplin Mason shows pictures of what these breeds of dogs used to look like and the characteristics of these breeds today can be compared to the way they used to look. Over the years, these breeds have gone through many changes morphologically as well as physiologically. Evolution has played a huge role in breeds of dogs and humans might be the cause of these evolutionary changes.
Health Issues Due to Changes
Throughout the years, these evolutionary changes in dog breeds have caused severe diseases in many purebred dogs. There are over 400 known genetic diseases that effect many purebred dogs today and most have been inherited through breeding[10]. Certain diseases are more common depending on the type of breed. For example, brachycephalic dogs are more prone to developing a disease called brachycephalic airway syndrome (BAS) because of the shape of their head. BAS is condition that causes respiratory issues and difficulty breathing[9]. Toy breeds, such as chihuahuas and miniature poodles, suffer from limited growth and can result in bone fragility as well as growth. Toy breeds are not the only types of dogs that suffer from bone growth related issues. Giant breeds such as the Great Dane and Saint Bernard are prone to osteochondrosis which is an orthopedic condition caused by rapid long bone growth[9]. Hip dysplasia is a common health issue that is found in large breed dogs such as the Golden Retriever and German Shepard[11]. Hip dysplasia is a deformity in the hip joint where the acetabulum and femoral head do not correctly fit and it causes friction and wear in the joint. Hip dysplasia is one of the most common inherited diseases among purebred dogs as well as syringomyelia. Syringomyelia is an obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid in the spinal cord due to the development of cavitation[11]. Another common disease known as spina bifida is commonly found in breeds of dogs that obtain curly tails such as the pug[11]. Spina bifida is a musculoskeletal disease that happens when the vertebral column is twisted and gives rise to a partially exposed neural tube[11]. These are only a few of the many diseases that have been inherited in purebred dogs over the last decades.
DNA Testing
DNA testing in dogs is becoming more common. These tests are used for multiple reasons including genetic proof to identify a breed as well as identification of mutations that cause diseases[12]. It has been shown that in some breeds, such as the German Shepard, that DNA testing can be useful in identifying inbreeding within these dogs. these tests can show the limited genetic diversity of breeds which can in turn help with identifying diseases that are found within those dogs[13]. Genetic diseases are very common among dogs and has also been shown in mixed breeds just as commonly as purebreds. Using DNA testing, it is possible to find out what types of breeds run within a dogs genes as well as the diseases that run within the generations of these dogs[14]. To perform a DNA test, a sample type including blood, cheek swab, etc should be collected from the dog being tested. From there, the samples will be sent to a laboratory where the specimen are maintained in a desired temperature. While in the laboratory, the test will be ran by trained personnel and then analyzed for validation. Once the DNA is determined, the test results will be sent back with a detailed description of the genetic sequences within the sample. These test results will show any genetic evidence within the dog as well as any genetic mutations that have been discovered[12].
References
- ^ a b Irion, D. N. (2003-01-01). "Analysis of Genetic Variation in 28 Dog Breed Populations With 100 Microsatellite Markers". Journal of Heredity. 94 (1): 81–87. doi:10.1093/jhered/esg004. ISSN 1471-8505.
{{cite journal}}: Check|issn=value (help) - ^ Ghirlanda, Stefano; Acerbi, Alberto; Herzog, Harold; Serpell, James A. (2013-09-11). "Fashion vs. Function in Cultural Evolution: The Case of Dog Breed Popularity". PLoS ONE. 8 (9): e74770. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074770. ISSN 1932-6203.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Vila, C. (1999-01-01). "Phylogenetic relationships, evolution, and genetic diversity of the domestic dog". Journal of Heredity. 90 (1): 71–77. doi:10.1093/jhered/90.1.71. ISSN 1471-8505.
{{cite journal}}: Check|issn=value (help) - ^ a b Wayne, Robert K.; vonHoldt, Bridgett M. (2012-01-22). "Evolutionary genomics of dog domestication". Mammalian Genome. 23 (1–2): 3–18. doi:10.1007/s00335-011-9386-7. ISSN 0938-8990.
- ^ Marinov, Miroslav; Teofanova, Denitsa; Radoslavov, Georgi; Hristov, Peter I (2018-03-07). "Mitochondrial diversity of Bulgarian native dogs suggests dual phylogenetic origin". dx.doi.org. Retrieved 2019-03-04.
- ^ "The 7 Dog Breed Groups Explained". American Kennel Club. Retrieved 2019-03-05.
- ^ Drake, Abby Grace; Klingenberg, Christian Peter (2008-01-07). "The pace of morphological change: historical transformation of skull shape in St Bernard dogs". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 275 (1630): 71–76. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1169. ISSN 0962-8452.
- ^ a b Club., American Kennel (2006). The complete dog book. Ballantine Books. ISBN 9780307416995. OCLC 681630333.
- ^ a b c d Farrell, Lindsay L; Schoenebeck, Jeffrey J; Wiener, Pamela; Clements, Dylan N; Summers, Kim M (2015-12). "The challenges of pedigree dog health: approaches to combating inherited disease". Canine Genetics and Epidemiology. 2 (1). doi:10.1186/s40575-015-0014-9. ISSN 2052-6687. PMC 4579364. PMID 26401331.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Nielen, A.L.J; van der Beek, S.; Ubbink, G.J.; Knol, B.W. (2001-01). "Epidemiology: Population parameters to compare dog breeds: Differences between five dutch purebred populations". Veterinary Quarterly. 23 (1): 43–49. doi:10.1080/01652176.2001.9695075. ISSN 0165-2176.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d Lawler, Dennis F. (2012-04). "Pedigree Dog "Exposed": A Documentary". Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science. 15 (2): 181–185. doi:10.1080/10888705.2012.658335. ISSN 1088-8705.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Shaffer, Lisa G.; Sundin, Kyle; Geretschlaeger, Anja; Segert, Julia; Swinburne, June E.; Royal, Ramon; Loechel, Robert; Ramirez, Christina J.; Ballif, Blake C. (2018-11-13). "Standards and guidelines for canine clinical genetic testing laboratories". Human Genetics. doi:10.1007/s00439-018-1954-4. ISSN 0340-6717.
- ^ Keijser, S. F. A.; Fieten, H.; Vos-Loohuis, M.; Piek, C. J.; Anderson, H.; Donner, J.; Scholten, I.; Nielen, M.; Hesselink, J. W. (2018-12). "Heterozygosity testing and multiplex DNA panel screening as a potential tool to monitor health and inbreeding in a small, closed dog population". Canine Genetics and Epidemiology. 5 (1). doi:10.1186/s40575-018-0068-6. ISSN 2052-6687.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Donner, Jonas; Anderson, Heidi; Davison, Stephen; Hughes, Angela M.; Bouirmane, Julia; Lindqvist, Johan; Lytle, Katherine M.; Ganesan, Balasubramanian; Ottka, Claudia (2019-01-18). "Correction: Frequency and distribution of 152 genetic disease variants in over 100,000 mixed breed and purebred dogs". PLOS Genetics. 15 (1): e1007938. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007938. ISSN 1553-7404.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
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