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{{Infobox person
{{Infobox person
|name=Ignacy Hryniewiecki
|name=Ignacy Hryniewiecki
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|image_size = 125px
|image_size = 125px
|caption=
|caption=
|birth_date={{Birth-date|1856}}
|birth_date=c. {{Birth-date|1856}}
|birth_place=Kalinovka, Klichev District, Russian Empire
|birth_place=[[Babruysk District]], [[Minsk Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1881|3|13|1856}}
|death_date = March 13, 1881 (aged c. 25)
|death_place=St. Petersburg, Russia
|death_place= Court Stables Infirmary, [[St. Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
| alias= Kotik<br>Mikhail Ivanovich<br>Elnikov
}}
}}
'''Ignacy Hryniewiecki''' or '''Ignaty Grinevitsky'''{{efn-lr|According to the GBooks ngraph, both names have been used in literature. His full name, as it appears in the original biographical extracts, is "Ignaty Ioakimovich Grinevitsky" ({{lang-ru|Игнатий Иоакимович Гриневицкий}}).{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=8}}}} ({{lang-ru|Игнатий Гриневицкий}}; {{circa|1856}} — March 13, 1881) was a [[Polish people|Polish]] member of the [[Russia|Russian]] conspirational revolutionary society [[Narodnaya Volya]]. He gained notoriety for participating in the bombing attack to which [[Tsar]] [[Alexander II of Russia]] succumbed. Hryniewiecki threw the bomb that fatally wounded the Tsar and himself. Having outlived his victim by a few hours, he died on the same day.
'''Ignacy Hryniewiecki''' ({{lang-pl|Ignacy Hryniewiecki}}; {{lang-ru|Игнатий Иоахимович Гриневицкий}}, ''Ignaty Ioakhimovich Grinevitsky''; party [[pseudonym]]: ''Kotik'', [[Russian language|Russian]] for "Kitten";<ref name="road">{{cite book|last=Yarmolinsky|first=Avrahm|title=Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism|url=http://www.ditext.com/yarmolinsky/yar14.html}}</ref> 1856 – 13 March 1881) was a revolutionary and independence fighter, member of [[People's Will]] and the principal assassin of [[Tsar]] [[Alexander II of Russia]]. He is also thought to be the first suicide bomber.


Hryniewiecki and his accomplices believed that the assassination of Alexander II could provoke a political or social revolution to overthrow the [[tsarist autocracy]]. Many historians consider the assassination as a [[Pyrrhic victory]], since instead of ushering in a revolution, it strengthened the resolve of the state to crush the revolutionary movement, leading to its decline in the 1880s. Hryniewiecki's role in the assassination has sometimes been cited as the earliest occurrence of [[suicide terrorism]].
⚫
==Early life==
==Life==
Hryniewiecki was born in 1856 in Kalinovka, a village in [[Klichaw|Klichev]] District in present-day [[Belarus]]. His family was a noble family (or ''[[szlachta]]'') of a former [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. According to his friend [[Lev Tikhomirov]], Hryniewiecki called himself a [[Litvin]].<ref>{{cite news|author=Васіль Герасімчык|title=Грынявіцкі, або проста «Коцік»|url=http://novychas.by/poviaz_casou/hryniavicki_abo_prosta_kocik/|publisher=Газэта «Новы час»|date=2016-03-01|access-date=2017-07-29}}</ref>
⚫
===Early life===
Ignacy Hryniewiecki was born in 1855–6,{{efn-lr|According to literature, he is said to have been either 25{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}} or 26{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=273}} years old in March 1881. His biographer, I.I. Zhukovsky-Zhuk, places the date of his birth most securely in the fall of 1856, although he notes that certain relatives of Hryniewiecki have placed it as early as August 1855.{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=8}}}} in [[Babruysk District]] of [[Minsk Governorate]], to a large family which hailed from [[Grodno Governorate]]. He was the son of a [[Catholic]] landowner who was of the Polish gentry.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=8}} According to his former comrade [[Lev Tikhomirov]], "He (''scil''. Hryniewiecki) called himself a [[Litvin]], and not a Pole." Tikhomirov considered him a Russified Pole, and further added that he was equally fluent in [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Polish language|Polish]].{{sfn|Tikhomirov|1927|p=319}} At one point when Hryniewiecki was reproached for not participating in the Polish movements, he replied: "When you start partisan fighting, I will be with you. But for the moment, when you do nothing, I shall work for Russia's freedom."{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=13}}{{sfn|Dziewanowski|1951|p=528}}


In 1875, Hryniewiecki graduated from a [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] in [[Byelostok]] with the highest academic rank, and in autumn he left for [[Saint Petersburg]] to enroll in mechanical engineering at the [[Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology]].{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=12}} In 1879 he became involved with Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), an underground Russian revolutionary movement to which he had contributed financial support.{{sfn|Gella|1979|p=316}} He was dismissed from the institute on June 1, 1880 for not attending lectures. In that year, working under the [[pseudonym]]s ''Kotik'' (Russian for "Kitten") and ''Mikhail Ivanovich'', Hryniewiecki was engaged in anti-Government activities and disseminated revolutionary propaganda among students and workers. He was also an organizer of the [[clandestine literature|underground literature]] [[Rabochaya Gazeta]] at a clandestine printing establishment.{{efn-lr|Nikolai Rysakov testified that Hryniewiecki was involved with the production of propaganda literature directed at workers, in particular the first few issues of Rabochaya Gazeta, which Rysakov then distributed to workers in various inns and taverns.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Pearl|1988|p=255}}}} According to contemporary descriptions, Hryniewiecki was of medium height, lightly bearded, possessed curly hair,{{sfn|Zhukovsky-Zhuk|1930|p=24}} and was good-natured and taciturn.{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=273}}
==Revolutionary life==
In 1875 Hryniewiecki left for [[Saint Petersburg]], where he enrolled in mathematics at the Polytechnic. Soon he joined the Russian revolutionary [[Narodnaya Volya (organization)|Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will) movement.


⚫
===Assassination of the Tsar===
In 1880 Hryniewiecki, [[Andrei Zhelyabov]], [[Sophia Perovskaya]] and others were in charge of revolutionary [[propaganda]] among students and workers. Hryniewiecki was an organizer of the ''Workers' Gazette'' and a [[typesetter]] at a clandestine printing establishment.

⚫
==Assassination of the Tsar==
{{main|Assassination of Alexander II of Russia}}
{{main|Assassination of Alexander II of Russia}}
In the fall of 1880, Hryniewiecki and five others were tasked with monitoring the various departure routes of the Tsar following his regular Sunday review of the troops at [[Michael Manege|Mikhailovskii Riding School]]. On February 26, 1881, their observations were discussed in a meeting held at Hryniewiecki's apartment at 59 Simbirskaya street, where he had been living under the surname ''Elnikov''. They had observed that the Tsar frequently traveled through [[Malaya Sadovaya Street]], so the Executive Committee decided to lay a mine there beneath the pavement. They however realized that he could also take a different route by turning into Italyanskaya Street and following the [[Catherine Canal]], thus avoiding the underground mine. It was therefore necessary to have bomb-throwers that manned the canal.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Hartnett|2001|p=250}}
In February 1881 Hryniewiecki joined the bomb-throwing unit created to assassinate Tsar Alexander II.<ref name="road"/>


Hryniewiecki volunteered and was designated a bomb-thrower (''metal'shchik'',{{sfn|Pomper|2008|p=139}} in the parlance of revolutionary terrorism). The bombs, prepared by the chemist [[Nikolai Kibalchich]], were specifically designed so that they could be hurtled at moving objects.{{sfn|Verhoeven|2010|p=266}} The bombs reportedly weighed 5–6 pounds and the explosive consisted of a mixture of [[nitroglycerine]] and [[Nitrocellulose|pyroxylin]].{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=274}} At a clandestine meeting, Hryniewiecki joined Kibalchich, [[Nikolai Rysakov]] and [[Timofei Mikhailov]] to test the bombs in a suburban park in [[Pargolovo]].{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=274}}
⚫
The night before the [[assassination]], Hryniewiecki wrote a letter to posterity, part of which reads:


⚫
The night before the assassination, Hryniewiecki wrote a letter to posterity, part of which reads:{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=276}}
⚫
{{quote|Alexander II must die. He will die, and with him, we, his enemies, his executioners, shall die too [...] How many more sacrifices will our unhappy country ask of its sons before it is liberated? It is my lot to die young, I shall not see our victory, I shall not live one day, one hour in the bright season of our triumph, but I believe that with my death I shall do all that it is my duty to do, and no one in the world can demand more of me [...]<ref>Abraham Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism, Princeton 1986, Page 276</ref>}}


⚫
{{quote|Alexander II must die. He will die, and with him, we, his enemies, his executioners, shall die too [...] How many more sacrifices will our unhappy country ask of its sons before it is liberated? [...] It is my lot to die young, I shall not see our victory, I shall not live one day, one hour in the bright season of our triumph, but I believe that with my death I shall do all that it is my duty to do, and no one in the world can demand more of me [...]}}
On 13 March 1881, (1 March [[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]<ref name="spartacus">{{cite web|title=Alexander II|url=http://www.spartacus-educational.com/RUSalexander2.htm|publisher=Spartacus Educational|accessdate=25 August 2013}}</ref>) Alexander II was traveling in a [[Carriage#Coach|two-seater carriage]].<ref name="road"/> An armed [[Cossack]] sat next to the coach-driver with Alexander II in the carriage while six other Cossacks followed on horseback.<ref name="spartacus"/> As the carriage approached a street corner near the Catherine Canal, Sophia Perovskaya gave the signal to [[Nikolai Rysakov]] and [[Timofei Mikhailov]] to throw their bombs.<ref name="spartacus"/> The Tsar was unharmed but two were wounded.<ref name="road"/> Alexander II insisted upon leaving the carriage to check on the wounded.<ref name="spartacus"/><ref name="kropotkin">{{cite book|last=Kropotkin|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Kropotkin|title=Memoirs of a Revolutionist|publisher=[[Dover Publications]]|page=432|year=2010 (reproduction of 1899 edition)|ISBN=978-0-486-47316-1}}</ref> At this point Hryniewiecki, who was leaning against the railing by the canal fence, raised both arms and threw his bomb<ref name="spartacus"/><ref name="kropotkin"/> and the blast tore the Tsar apart.<ref name="road"/> Just before throwing the bomb he was alleged to have shouted "It is too soon to thank God", in response to the emperor saying "thank God I'm untouched" to the anxious inquires of his entourage.<ref>Robert K. Massie, Nicholas and Alexandra, Dell Publishing Company, New York, p.16</ref> Nearby, Hryniewiecki himself lay unconscious from the blast.<ref name="road"/>


On Sunday morning, 13 March 1881 [1 March [[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]], Hryniewiecki and the three other bomb-throwers gathered at the group's flat on Telezhnaya Street. At 9–10 AM, [[Sophia Perovskaya]] and Kibalchich each brought two missiles; the men would have one apiece.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=276}} Perovskaya would later relate that, before heading to the Catherine Canal, she, Rysakov and Hryniewiecki sat in a cakery located opposite of the [[Great Gostiny Dvor|Gostiny Dvor]], impatiently waiting for the right time to intercept Alexander II's cavalcade. Only Hryniewiecki could calmly eat a portion served to him. From the cakery they parted ways and converged on the canal. There, as he passed Perovskaya to take up his position on the quay, Hryniewiecki smiled at her and gave her a barely perceptible wink. He showed no signs of fear or anxiety and went to his death with an unflinching spirit.{{efn-lr|This is reported by the fellow conspirator Arkady Tyrkov, who in his testimony, provides the essence of his verbal exchange with Perovskaya immediately after the assassination.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}}}
Hryniewiecki was taken to the infirmary attached to the [[Winter Palace]]. At 9 PM he regained consciousness, refusing to give any information to the police. He died from his wounds at 10:30 PM.<ref>Abraham Yarmolinsky, Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism, Princeton 1986, Page 280</ref>


At about 2:15 PM, the conspirators intercepted the imperial carriage as it approached a street corner near the Catherine Canal. Perovskaya waved her handkerchief as a predetermined signal to the bomb-throwers to proceed with the attack. Rysakov then hurled his bomb at the carriage, wounding several bystanders and members of Tsar's equipage. Disregarding pleas for his own safety, Alexander insisted upon leaving his carriage to see his captured assailant.{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=280}} After inspecting Rysakov, instead of returning to the palace posthaste, the Tsar decided to walked over and survey the spot where the explosion had occurred. He said "Thank God, I escaped injury," in answer to the anxious inquires of his entourage.{{sfn|Hartnett|2001|p=251}} As his curiosity was satisfied, he decided to drive away and proceeded to walk back towards the carriage. At this point, Tsar had come to less 1.5 meters from Hryniewiecki,{{efn-lr|According to two eyewitnesses, the attack took place when the Tsar was no more than two [[arshin]]s from his would-be assassin,{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}} or, two or three [[Pace (unit)|paces]] of him.{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=280}}}} who was leaning against the railing by the canal fence and carrying a bomb wrapped in a handkerchief. Hearing the Tsar's expression of gratitude, according to some sources Hryniewiecki shouted: "It is too soon to thank God yet".{{sfn|Walsh|2002}}{{efn-lr|This is uncertain since a similar line is instead attributed to Rysakov in the original post-arrest testimonies.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}}} He turned to face the Tsar and raised both arms and threw a bomb at his feet. Alexander suffered severe wounds and died at 3:30 PM on that day. Reportedly, Hryniewiecki's bomb claimed many more causalities than the first, with one bystander being fatally wounded.{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=281}}
The assassination had been meant to ignite revolution. Hryniewiecki's fellow-conspirators — [[Nikolai Kibalchich]], [[Sophia Perovskaya]], Nikolai Rysakov, Timofei Mikhailov, [[Andrei Zhelyabov]] — were sentenced to death and were hanged on 3 April 1881. They were buried in an anonymous common grave.


Following the explosion, the third bomber [[Ivan Emelyanov]] rushed to the scene to see if Hryniewiecki could still be spirited away in the chaos, but found him laying gravely wounded and unconscious from the blast. Hryniewiecki was taken to the nearby infirmary attached to the [[Winter Palace]].{{efn-lr|He had been carried to the hospital which was known in Russian as: "Придворно-конюшенном госпитале" (literally ''Court stables hospital'').{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}}} At 9 PM he regained consciousness before he drew his last breath. According to the medical examiner's report he only once abruptly said "I don't know" to the police at his bedside who had been questioning him about his name and rank. Refusing to disclose any information, he died from his wounds at 10:30 PM in the evening.{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=281}}
The [[Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood]] was erected on the site of the assassination.
===Aftermath===
{{multiple image
| width = 160
| image1 = SPB Saviour on the Blood 1905-1915.jpg
| image2 = Prokudin-Gorskii SPB Cathedral of Resurrection of Christ (detail).jpg
| footer_align = left
| footer = Photographs of the [[Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood|Cathedral of Resurrection]] near its completion, taken by [[Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky]] approximately 24 years after the assassination.}}


Hryniewiecki's identity was established only posthumously in April of 1881. During the [[Pervomartovtsi|trial of the tsaricides]], he was simply referred to as "the person who died on March 1, and lived under the false name of Elnikov." During his post-arrest confession, [[Andrei Zhelyabov]] refused to identify his body. Rysakov, the first bomb-thrower and turncoat, had only known Hryniewiecki by his party pseudonyms, and was thus unable to reveal his true name. His surname was first revealed by the arrested member of People's Will, Kolodkevich. This was further corroborated and supplemented by members of St. Petersburg Technological Institute, as well as by his relations in his hometown.{{sfn|Kel'ner|2015}}
==See also==

* [[List of Poles#Assassins|List of Poles]]
Hryniewiecki and his fellow conspirators had hoped that the assassination would precipitate a political or social revolution. However, it instead impelled [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] to step up state repression and abrogate many of his predecessor's reforms. Numerous arrests depleted the Executive Committee, which together with the intensified police surveillance dealt serious blows to the movement. Many historians have therefore regarded the assassination as a Pyrrhic victory and a prelude to the decline of the revolutionary movement in the 1880s.{{efn-lr|See, for example, the text by Avrahm Yarmolinsky, Ch. 15: "A Pyrrhic Victory".{{sfn|Yarmolinsky|2016|p=280}} Also, see the article by Deborah Pearl.{{sfn|Pearl|1988|p=255}}}}
* [[Pervomartovtsi]]

The role of a bomb-thrower was known to carry with it the likelihood of death, and the designated bomb-throwers such as Hryniewiecki took that role knowingly, and accepted a suicide mission.{{sfn|Pomper|2008|p=139}} Hryniewiecki is therefore sometimes considered to be the first [[suicide bomber]].{{efn-lr|See, for instance: Bennett (2007);{{sfn|Bennett|2007}} Baddeley (2009);{{sfn|Baddeley|2009}} Ortbals (2018);{{sfn|Ortbals|2018}} Overton (2019){{sfn|Overton|2019}}.}}

A chapel and later the [[Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood|Resurrection Cathedral]] (in popular parlance, "the Savior on the Blood") was erected on the spot of Alexander's assassination on Catherine Canal.{{sfn|Wortman|2013}} In May 1975, the bridge near the scene of the incident was named after Hryniewiecki as the ''Grinevitsky Bridge'', until it was renamed [[Novo-Konyushenny Bridge]] in 1998.{{sfn|Novo-Konyushenny Bridge}}


==References==
==References==
===Footnotes===
⚫
{{reflist}}
{{notelist-lr}}

===Citations===
⚫
{{reflist|2}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book |last1=Yarmolinsky |first1=Avrahm |title=Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism |year=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0691638546| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Kel'ner |first1=Viktor Efimovich |title=1 marta 1881 goda: Kazn imperatora Aleksandra II (1 марта 1881 года: Казнь императора Александра II) |year=2015 |publisher=Lenizdat |isbn=5-289-01024-6| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Zhukovsky-Zhuk |first1=I.I. |title= Grinevitsky Ioakimovich Ignaty (Игнатий Иоакимович Гриневецкий) |year=1930 |publisher= Politkorzhan Publishing House (Publishing house of political prisoners)|isbn=| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Tikhomirov |first1=Lev |title= Memoirs of Lev Tikhomirov (Воспоминания Льва Тихомирова) |year=1927 |publisher= Gos. Publishing House|isbn=| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Dziewanowski|first1=M.|title=The Beginnings of Socialism in Poland|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review|year=1951|volume=29|issue=73|pages=510-531|jstor=4204253| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Gella|first1=A.|title= The Russian and Polish Intelligentsias: A Sociological Perspective|journal=Studies in Soviet Thought|year=1979|volume=19|issue=4|pages=307-320|jstor=20098852| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Pomper|first1=P.|title= Aleksandr Ul'ianov: Darwinian Terrorist|journal=Russian History|year=2008|volume=35|issue=1/2|pages=139-156|jstor=24661676| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Verhoeven|first1=C.|title= Time of Terror, Terror of Time: On the Impatience of Russian Revolutionary Terrorism (Early 1860s – Early 1880s)|journal=Jahrbücher Für Geschichte Osteuropas|year=2010|volume=58|issue=2|pages=254-273|jstor=41052430| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Hartnett|first1=L.|title= The Making of a Revolutionary Icon: Vera Nikolaevna Figner and the People's Will in the Wake of the Assassination of Tsar Aleksandr II|journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers|year=2001|volume=43|issue=2/3|pages=249-270|jstor=40870322| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Walsh |first1=Edmund A. |title= The Fall of the Russian Empire: The Story of the Last of the Romanovs and the Coming of the Bolsheviks|year=2002 |publisher= Roman Catholic Book|isbn=978-1929291311| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Pearl|first1=Deborah|title= Educating Workers For Revolution: Populist Propaganda in St. Petersburg, 1879-1882|journal=Russian History|year=1988|volume=15|issue=2/4|pages=255-284|jstor=24656239| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Brian T. |title= Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism: Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Personnel|year=2007 |publisher= Wiley-Interscience|isbn=978-0471771524| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Baddeley |first1=Gavin |title= God's Assassins: The Medieval Roots of Terrorism (Devil's Histories)|year=2009 |publisher= Ian Allan Publishing|isbn=978-0711034099| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Ortbals |first1=Candice D. |title= Gender and Political Violence: Women Changing the Politics of Terrorism|year=2018 |publisher= Springer|isbn=9781787470866| ref=harv}}

* {{cite book |last1=Overton |first1=Iain |title= The Price of Paradise|year=2019 |publisher= Ian Allan Publishing|isbn=9781787470866| ref=harv}}

* {{cite journal|last1=Wortman|first1=R.|title= Moscow and Petersburg: The Problem of Political Center in Tsarist Russia, 1881-1914. In Russian Monarchy: Representation and Rule|journal=Brighton, MA, USA: Academic Studies Press|year=2013|volume=|issue=|pages=170-198|jstor=j.ctt21h4wbq.13| ref=harv}}

* {{cite web | title=Novo-Konyushenny Bridge | url=http://www.saint-petersburg.com/bridges/novo-konyushenny-bridge | publisher=saint-petersburg.com | accessdate=20 October 2019 | ref=CITEREFNovo-Konyushenny Bridge}}


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Revision as of 08:34, 21 October 2019

Ignacy Hryniewiecki
Bornc. 1856 (1856)
Babruysk District, Minsk Governorate, Russian Empire
DiedMarch 13, 1881 (aged c. 25)
Court Stables Infirmary, St. Petersburg, Russian Empire
Other namesKotik
Mikhail Ivanovich
Elnikov

Ignacy Hryniewiecki or Ignaty Grinevitsky[i] (Russian: Игнатий Гриневицкий; c. 1856 — March 13, 1881) was a Polish member of the Russian conspirational revolutionary society Narodnaya Volya. He gained notoriety for participating in the bombing attack to which Tsar Alexander II of Russia succumbed. Hryniewiecki threw the bomb that fatally wounded the Tsar and himself. Having outlived his victim by a few hours, he died on the same day.

Hryniewiecki and his accomplices believed that the assassination of Alexander II could provoke a political or social revolution to overthrow the tsarist autocracy. Many historians consider the assassination as a Pyrrhic victory, since instead of ushering in a revolution, it strengthened the resolve of the state to crush the revolutionary movement, leading to its decline in the 1880s. Hryniewiecki's role in the assassination has sometimes been cited as the earliest occurrence of suicide terrorism.

Life

Early life

Ignacy Hryniewiecki was born in 1855–6,[ii] in Babruysk District of Minsk Governorate, to a large family which hailed from Grodno Governorate. He was the son of a Catholic landowner who was of the Polish gentry.[1][2] According to his former comrade Lev Tikhomirov, "He (scil. Hryniewiecki) called himself a Litvin, and not a Pole." Tikhomirov considered him a Russified Pole, and further added that he was equally fluent in Russian and Polish.[4] At one point when Hryniewiecki was reproached for not participating in the Polish movements, he replied: "When you start partisan fighting, I will be with you. But for the moment, when you do nothing, I shall work for Russia's freedom."[5][6]

In 1875, Hryniewiecki graduated from a gymnasium in Byelostok with the highest academic rank, and in autumn he left for Saint Petersburg to enroll in mechanical engineering at the Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology.[7] In 1879 he became involved with Narodnaya Volya (People's Will), an underground Russian revolutionary movement to which he had contributed financial support.[8] He was dismissed from the institute on June 1, 1880 for not attending lectures. In that year, working under the pseudonyms Kotik (Russian for "Kitten") and Mikhail Ivanovich, Hryniewiecki was engaged in anti-Government activities and disseminated revolutionary propaganda among students and workers. He was also an organizer of the underground literature Rabochaya Gazeta at a clandestine printing establishment.[iii] According to contemporary descriptions, Hryniewiecki was of medium height, lightly bearded, possessed curly hair,[10] and was good-natured and taciturn.[3]

Assassination of the Tsar

Main article: Assassination of Alexander II of Russia

In the fall of 1880, Hryniewiecki and five others were tasked with monitoring the various departure routes of the Tsar following his regular Sunday review of the troops at Mikhailovskii Riding School. On February 26, 1881, their observations were discussed in a meeting held at Hryniewiecki's apartment at 59 Simbirskaya street, where he had been living under the surname Elnikov. They had observed that the Tsar frequently traveled through Malaya Sadovaya Street, so the Executive Committee decided to lay a mine there beneath the pavement. They however realized that he could also take a different route by turning into Italyanskaya Street and following the Catherine Canal, thus avoiding the underground mine. It was therefore necessary to have bomb-throwers that manned the canal.[1][11]

Hryniewiecki volunteered and was designated a bomb-thrower (metal'shchik,[12] in the parlance of revolutionary terrorism). The bombs, prepared by the chemist Nikolai Kibalchich, were specifically designed so that they could be hurtled at moving objects.[13] The bombs reportedly weighed 5–6 pounds and the explosive consisted of a mixture of nitroglycerine and pyroxylin.[14] At a clandestine meeting, Hryniewiecki joined Kibalchich, Nikolai Rysakov and Timofei Mikhailov to test the bombs in a suburban park in Pargolovo.[1][14]

The night before the assassination, Hryniewiecki wrote a letter to posterity, part of which reads:[15]

Alexander II must die. He will die, and with him, we, his enemies, his executioners, shall die too [...] How many more sacrifices will our unhappy country ask of its sons before it is liberated? [...] It is my lot to die young, I shall not see our victory, I shall not live one day, one hour in the bright season of our triumph, but I believe that with my death I shall do all that it is my duty to do, and no one in the world can demand more of me [...]

On Sunday morning, 13 March 1881 [1 March O.S.], Hryniewiecki and the three other bomb-throwers gathered at the group's flat on Telezhnaya Street. At 9–10 AM, Sophia Perovskaya and Kibalchich each brought two missiles; the men would have one apiece.[1][15] Perovskaya would later relate that, before heading to the Catherine Canal, she, Rysakov and Hryniewiecki sat in a cakery located opposite of the Gostiny Dvor, impatiently waiting for the right time to intercept Alexander II's cavalcade. Only Hryniewiecki could calmly eat a portion served to him. From the cakery they parted ways and converged on the canal. There, as he passed Perovskaya to take up his position on the quay, Hryniewiecki smiled at her and gave her a barely perceptible wink. He showed no signs of fear or anxiety and went to his death with an unflinching spirit.[iv]

At about 2:15 PM, the conspirators intercepted the imperial carriage as it approached a street corner near the Catherine Canal. Perovskaya waved her handkerchief as a predetermined signal to the bomb-throwers to proceed with the attack. Rysakov then hurled his bomb at the carriage, wounding several bystanders and members of Tsar's equipage. Disregarding pleas for his own safety, Alexander insisted upon leaving his carriage to see his captured assailant.[16] After inspecting Rysakov, instead of returning to the palace posthaste, the Tsar decided to walked over and survey the spot where the explosion had occurred. He said "Thank God, I escaped injury," in answer to the anxious inquires of his entourage.[17] As his curiosity was satisfied, he decided to drive away and proceeded to walk back towards the carriage. At this point, Tsar had come to less 1.5 meters from Hryniewiecki,[v] who was leaning against the railing by the canal fence and carrying a bomb wrapped in a handkerchief. Hearing the Tsar's expression of gratitude, according to some sources Hryniewiecki shouted: "It is too soon to thank God yet".[18][vi] He turned to face the Tsar and raised both arms and threw a bomb at his feet. Alexander suffered severe wounds and died at 3:30 PM on that day. Reportedly, Hryniewiecki's bomb claimed many more causalities than the first, with one bystander being fatally wounded.[19]

Following the explosion, the third bomber Ivan Emelyanov rushed to the scene to see if Hryniewiecki could still be spirited away in the chaos, but found him laying gravely wounded and unconscious from the blast. Hryniewiecki was taken to the nearby infirmary attached to the Winter Palace.[vii] At 9 PM he regained consciousness before he drew his last breath. According to the medical examiner's report he only once abruptly said "I don't know" to the police at his bedside who had been questioning him about his name and rank. Refusing to disclose any information, he died from his wounds at 10:30 PM in the evening.[19]

Aftermath

Photographs of the Cathedral of Resurrection near its completion, taken by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky approximately 24 years after the assassination.

Hryniewiecki's identity was established only posthumously in April of 1881. During the trial of the tsaricides, he was simply referred to as "the person who died on March 1, and lived under the false name of Elnikov." During his post-arrest confession, Andrei Zhelyabov refused to identify his body. Rysakov, the first bomb-thrower and turncoat, had only known Hryniewiecki by his party pseudonyms, and was thus unable to reveal his true name. His surname was first revealed by the arrested member of People's Will, Kolodkevich. This was further corroborated and supplemented by members of St. Petersburg Technological Institute, as well as by his relations in his hometown.[1]

Hryniewiecki and his fellow conspirators had hoped that the assassination would precipitate a political or social revolution. However, it instead impelled Alexander III to step up state repression and abrogate many of his predecessor's reforms. Numerous arrests depleted the Executive Committee, which together with the intensified police surveillance dealt serious blows to the movement. Many historians have therefore regarded the assassination as a Pyrrhic victory and a prelude to the decline of the revolutionary movement in the 1880s.[viii]

The role of a bomb-thrower was known to carry with it the likelihood of death, and the designated bomb-throwers such as Hryniewiecki took that role knowingly, and accepted a suicide mission.[12] Hryniewiecki is therefore sometimes considered to be the first suicide bomber.[ix]

A chapel and later the Resurrection Cathedral (in popular parlance, "the Savior on the Blood") was erected on the spot of Alexander's assassination on Catherine Canal.[24] In May 1975, the bridge near the scene of the incident was named after Hryniewiecki as the Grinevitsky Bridge, until it was renamed Novo-Konyushenny Bridge in 1998.[25]

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ According to the GBooks ngraph, both names have been used in literature. His full name, as it appears in the original biographical extracts, is "Ignaty Ioakimovich Grinevitsky" (Russian: Игнатий Иоакимович Гриневицкий).[1][2]
  2. ^ According to literature, he is said to have been either 25[1] or 26[3] years old in March 1881. His biographer, I.I. Zhukovsky-Zhuk, places the date of his birth most securely in the fall of 1856, although he notes that certain relatives of Hryniewiecki have placed it as early as August 1855.[2]
  3. ^ Nikolai Rysakov testified that Hryniewiecki was involved with the production of propaganda literature directed at workers, in particular the first few issues of Rabochaya Gazeta, which Rysakov then distributed to workers in various inns and taverns.[1][9]
  4. ^ This is reported by the fellow conspirator Arkady Tyrkov, who in his testimony, provides the essence of his verbal exchange with Perovskaya immediately after the assassination.[1]
  5. ^ According to two eyewitnesses, the attack took place when the Tsar was no more than two arshins from his would-be assassin,[1] or, two or three paces of him.[16]
  6. ^ This is uncertain since a similar line is instead attributed to Rysakov in the original post-arrest testimonies.[1]
  7. ^ He had been carried to the hospital which was known in Russian as: "Придворно-конюшенном госпитале" (literally Court stables hospital).[1]
  8. ^ See, for example, the text by Avrahm Yarmolinsky, Ch. 15: "A Pyrrhic Victory".[16] Also, see the article by Deborah Pearl.[9]
  9. ^ See, for instance: Bennett (2007);[20] Baddeley (2009);[21] Ortbals (2018);[22] Overton (2019)[23].

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kel'ner 2015.
  2. ^ a b c Zhukovsky-Zhuk 1930, p. 8.
  3. ^ a b Yarmolinsky 2016, p. 273.
  4. ^ Tikhomirov 1927, p. 319.
  5. ^ Zhukovsky-Zhuk 1930, p. 13.
  6. ^ Dziewanowski 1951, p. 528.
  7. ^ Zhukovsky-Zhuk 1930, p. 12.
  8. ^ Gella 1979, p. 316.
  9. ^ a b Pearl 1988, p. 255.
  10. ^ Zhukovsky-Zhuk 1930, p. 24.
  11. ^ Hartnett 2001, p. 250.
  12. ^ a b Pomper 2008, p. 139.
  13. ^ Verhoeven 2010, p. 266.
  14. ^ a b Yarmolinsky 2016, p. 274.
  15. ^ a b Yarmolinsky 2016, p. 276.
  16. ^ a b c Yarmolinsky 2016, p. 280.
  17. ^ Hartnett 2001, p. 251.
  18. ^ Walsh 2002.
  19. ^ a b Yarmolinsky 2016, p. 281.
  20. ^ Bennett 2007.
  21. ^ Baddeley 2009.
  22. ^ Ortbals 2018.
  23. ^ Overton 2019.
  24. ^ Wortman 2013.
  25. ^ Novo-Konyushenny Bridge.

Bibliography

  • Yarmolinsky, Avrahm (2016). Road to Revolution: A Century of Russian Radicalism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691638546. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Kel'ner, Viktor Efimovich (2015). 1 marta 1881 goda: Kazn imperatora Aleksandra II (1 марта 1881 года: Казнь императора Александра II). Lenizdat. ISBN 5-289-01024-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Zhukovsky-Zhuk, I.I. (1930). Grinevitsky Ioakimovich Ignaty (Игнатий Иоакимович Гриневецкий). Politkorzhan Publishing House (Publishing house of political prisoners). {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Tikhomirov, Lev (1927). Memoirs of Lev Tikhomirov (Воспоминания Льва Тихомирова). Gos. Publishing House. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Dziewanowski, M. (1951). "The Beginnings of Socialism in Poland". The Slavonic and East European Review. 29 (73): 510–531. JSTOR 4204253. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Gella, A. (1979). "The Russian and Polish Intelligentsias: A Sociological Perspective". Studies in Soviet Thought. 19 (4): 307–320. JSTOR 20098852. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Pomper, P. (2008). "Aleksandr Ul'ianov: Darwinian Terrorist". Russian History. 35 (1/2): 139–156. JSTOR 24661676. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Verhoeven, C. (2010). "Time of Terror, Terror of Time: On the Impatience of Russian Revolutionary Terrorism (Early 1860s – Early 1880s)". Jahrbücher Für Geschichte Osteuropas. 58 (2): 254–273. JSTOR 41052430. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Hartnett, L. (2001). "The Making of a Revolutionary Icon: Vera Nikolaevna Figner and the People's Will in the Wake of the Assassination of Tsar Aleksandr II". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 43 (2/3): 249–270. JSTOR 40870322. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Walsh, Edmund A. (2002). The Fall of the Russian Empire: The Story of the Last of the Romanovs and the Coming of the Bolsheviks. Roman Catholic Book. ISBN 978-1929291311. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Pearl, Deborah (1988). "Educating Workers For Revolution: Populist Propaganda in St. Petersburg, 1879-1882". Russian History. 15 (2/4): 255–284. JSTOR 24656239. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Bennett, Brian T. (2007). Understanding, Assessing, and Responding to Terrorism: Protecting Critical Infrastructure and Personnel. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0471771524. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Baddeley, Gavin (2009). God's Assassins: The Medieval Roots of Terrorism (Devil's Histories). Ian Allan Publishing. ISBN 978-0711034099. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Ortbals, Candice D. (2018). Gender and Political Violence: Women Changing the Politics of Terrorism. Springer. ISBN 9781787470866. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  • Wortman, R. (2013). "Moscow and Petersburg: The Problem of Political Center in Tsarist Russia, 1881-1914. In Russian Monarchy: Representation and Rule". Brighton, MA, USA: Academic Studies Press: 170–198. JSTOR j.ctt21h4wbq.13. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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