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Common symbiosis signaling pathway

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The Common Symbiotic Signaling Pathway (CSSP) is a Signaling cascade in plants that seen to be activated in both NOD-factor perception (for nodule forming Rhizobia), as well as found in MYC-factor perception that are released from Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. The pathway is distinguished from the pathogen recognition pathways, but may have some common receptors involved in both pathogen recognition as well as CSSP. A recent work [1] by Kevin Cope and colleagues shown that possibly other type of mycorrhizae may involve the CSSP components such as Myc-factor recognition.

The AMF colonization requires the following chain[2] of events that can be roughly divided into following steps -

  • 1: The Pre-Contact Signaling,
  • 2: The CSSP
  • *2: A: Perception
  • *2: B: Transmission
  • *2: C: Transcription
  • 3: The Accommodation program

Outline

To accurately recognize the infection thread of a different species of organism, and to establish a mutually beneficial association requires robust signaling.[3] AM fungi are also fatty acid auxotrophs;[4][2] therefore they depend on plant for supply of fatty acid supply.[5]

At the pre-symbiotic signaling; both symbionts release chemical factors in their surroundings so that the partners can find each other.[6]' Plant root exudates play role in complex microbial interaction,[7] by releasing a lot of versatile materials.[7][8][9] among which strigolactone has been identified to facilitate both AMF colonisation and pathogen infection.[8]

It is seen that phosphate starvation in plant induces strigolactone production as well as AMF colonisation.[8] Plants release strigolactone, a class of caroteinoid-based plant hormone which also attracts the fungal symbionts and stimulate the fungal oxidative metabolism and also growth and branching of the fungal partner [2] Strigolactone promotes hyphal branching in germinating AMF spores [9] It plays role in intense ramification of the AMF hyphae at the vicinity of root and then colonization [10]

The common symbiosis signalling pathway is called so because it has common components for fungal symbiosis as well as rhizobial symbiosis. The common signalling pathway probably evolved when the existing pathway for arbuscular mycorrhizae was exploited by rhizobia,.[2][11]

The perception happens when fungal Myc factor is detected by plant. Myc factors are comparable to rhizobial nod factors. The chemical nature of Myc factor has recently been revealed as lipo-chito-oligosaccharide (Myc-LCOs) and chito-oligosaccharides (Myc-COs) that work as symbiotic signal,[10][12][13]

Presence of Strigolactone enhances the production of Myc-CO production by AMF [10]

Myc factor receptor (MFR) is still putative, however However, another protein DMI2 (or SYMRK) that have prominent role in perception process and it is thought to be a co-receptor of MFR. Rice plant probably show a different mechanism using OsCERK1 and OsCEBiP which probably detect chitin oligomers[2][14][15]

The transmission happens when the signal transmitted after detection to the gene expression stage. This process is mediated by two nucleoporins NUP85 and NUP133,[11] Alternatively, another hypothesis says HMG-CoA reductase is activated on perception, which then converts HMG-CoA into mevalonate, this mevalonate acts as a second messenger and activates a nuclear K+ cation channel (DMI-1 or Pollux).[2][16] The transmission stage ends by creating a ‘calcium spike’ into the nucleus [17]

The transcription stage starts when a Calcium and Calmodulin dependent kinase (CCaMK) is activated.[2] then it stimulates a target protein CYCLOPS.[2] CCaMK and CYCLOPS probably forms a complex that along with DELLA protein, regulates the expression of RAM1 (Reduced Arbuscular Mycorrhyza1) gene expression.[2]

The accommodation process is the extensive remodelling of host cortical cells. This includes invagination of host plasmalemma, proliferation of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, trans-golgi network and secretary vesicles. Plastids multiply and form “stromules”. Vacuoles also goes through extensive reorganization [11]

The Pre Contact Signaling

Chemical signalling starts prior to two symbionts come into contact. From the host plant's side, it synthesizes and releases a range of caroteinoid based phytohormone, called strigolactones.[2] They have a conserved tricyclic lactone structure also known as ABC rings.[18] Strigolactone biosynthesis occurs mainly in plastid,[19] where D27 (Rice DWARF 27; Arabidopsis ortholog ATD27), an Iron binding beta-carotene isomerase works at upstream of strigolactone biosynthesis [19] Then carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase enzyme CCD7 and CCD8 modifies the structure, which has following orthologs:

The strigolactone signalling machinery comprises through a bunch of nuclear proteins [18]
Gene name Localization function Rice ortholog Pea ortholog Petunia ortholog Arabidopsis ortholog
CCD7 Plastid proteins involved in strigolactone biosynthesis D17/ HTD1 RMS5 DAD3 MAX3
CCD8 Plastid proteins involved in strigolactone biosynthesis D10 RMS1 DAD4 MAX4
Alpha/Beta fold hydrolase Nuclear proteins involved in strigolactone perception D14 RMS3 DAD2 ?

The alpha/beta fold hydrolase D3 and also D14L (D14-Like) (Later one has Arabidopsis ortholog KAI2, or KARRIKIN INSENSITIVE-2) is reported to have important roles in mycorrhizal symbiosis [3], notably, D3, D14 and D14L are localised in nucleus.[2]

NOPE1 or 'NO PERCEPTION 1', newly discovered transporter protein in Rice (Oryza sativa) and Maize (Zea mays), also required for the priming stage for colonisation by the fungus. NOPE1 is a member of Major Facilitator Super family of transport proteins, capable of N-acetylglucosamine transport. Since nope1 mutant's root exudates fail to elicited transcriptional responses in fungi, it strongly seems NOPE1 secretes something (not yet characterised) that promotes fungal response [2]

Perception

There are two main type of root symbiosis; one is root nodule symbiosis by Rhizobia (RN-type) and another is Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM-type). There are common genes involved in between these two pathways.[20] these key common components, form the Common Symbiosis pathway (CSP or CSSP).[20] It has been proposed that, RN symbiosis has originated from AM symbiosis.[11] The perception of presence of fungal symbiont, takes place mainly through fungal chemical secretions generally termed as Myc factors. Receptors for Myc factors are yet to be identified. However, DMI2/SYMRK probably acts as a co-receptor of Myc factor receptor (MFR). The AM fungal secreted materials relevant to symbiosis are Myc-LCOs, Myc-Cos, N-Acetylglucosamine [2][21]

Fungal Myc-factors and the plant protein they act on
Myc factor Plant protein it mainly act on
Myc-LCOs LYS11 in Lotus japonicas
Short chain chitin oligomers (COs) OsCERK1 and OsCEBiP in rice
N-acetylglucosamine NOPE-1 in maize

Fungal Molecules that triggers CSSP

Myc-LCOs. (lipochitooligosaccharides)

Like Rhizobial LCOs (Nod factors); Myc-LCOs play important role in perception stage. They are kind of secreted materials from AM fungi, mainly mixtures of lipo-chito-oligosaccharides (Myc-LCOs) . In Lotus japonicus, LYS11, a receptor for LCOs, was expressed in root cortex cells associated with intra-radical colonizing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi [21]

Short chain chitin oligomers (Myc-COs)

AM host plants show symbiotic-like calcium wave upon exposure to short chain chitin oligomers. It has been reported that production of these molecules by AM fungus Rhizophagus irregularis, gets strongly stimulated upon exposure to strigolactones [2] This gives hint to a model that plants secrete strigolactones and as a reply to it, this fungus increases short chain chitin oligomer, which in turns elicits the plant response to accommodate the fungus. The lysine motif OsCERK1 and OsCEBiP is thought to be involved with perception of short chain chitin oligomers.[2]

N-Acetylglucosamine.

NOPE-1 transporter has been described already. NOPE-1 also shows a strong N-acetylglucosamine uptake activity, and is thought to be associated with recognition of presence of fungal symbiont.[2]

Some plant proteins suspected to recognise Myc-factors, Rice OsCERK1 Lysin motif (LysM) receptor-like kinase, is one of them.[15]

Cell Surface Receptors

There are multiple families of pattern recognition receptors and co-receptors involved in recognition of microbial pathogens and symbionts. Some of the relevant families involved in CSSP, are Membrane bound LysMs (LYM), Soluble LysM Receptor like Protein, LYK (LysM receptors with active Kinase domain), LYR (LysM proteins with inactive kinase domain), etc. (ref)

Seemingly, different combinations of a LYK and LYR generates differential signals (ref)


MtENOD11 get activated in presence of AMF exudates; Little is known about this phenomenon. (ref)

Receptor like Kinase (RLKs)

DMI2/ SYMRK is a receptor like kinase, an important protein in endosymbiosis signal perception, reported in several plants (Mt-DMI2 or Mt-NORK in Medicago trancatula; Lj-SYMRK in Lotus japonicas; Ps-SYM19 in Pisum sativum; OsSYMRK in Rice). OsSYMRK lacks an N terminal domain and exclusively regulate AM symbiosis, does not work for RN symbiosis. Notably, it has been found that a Nodulation-factor inducible gene, (ref)

LysM receptor-like kinase

Lysin Motif (LysM) receptor-like kinase are a subfamily related to membrane bound Receptor like kinase (RLKs) with an extracellular region consisting of 3 Lysine motifs. They have some important orthologs in different plants, that vary in their function. (In some plant they are involved in AM symbiosis, in some plants they are not). Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), a non-legume dicot, also have a similar LysM receptor, SlLYK10 that Promotes AM symbiosis. There are some co-receptors of Myc-factor receptor viz., OsCEBiP in Rice, a LysM membrane protein can function as a co-receptor of OsCERK1 but it works in a different pathway. (ref)


Most of these kinases are Serine/Threonine kinase, some are Tyrosine kinase (ref)

Important cell surface receptots involved in molecular pattern recognition[22]
Medicago truncatula Lotus japonicus Pisum sativum

(pea)

Prunus persica Arabidopsis thalliana Brassica rapa Solanum lycopersicum

(Tomato)

Brachypodium distachyon Oryza sativa

(Rice)

Lysine Motif

Receptor-Like Kinase and Lysine Motif Receptor like Protein

LYM LYMI LYM1 PpLYM1 AtLYM1

AtLYM3

SlLYM1 BdLYM1

BdLYM3

OsLYP6

OsLYP5 OsLYP4

LYMII LYM2 PpLYM3

PpLYM2

AtLYM2 SlLYM3

SlLYM2

BdLYM2

BdLYM4

OsCEBiP

OsLYP3

LYR LYR 1 LYRIA MtNFP

MtLYR1

LjNFR5

LjLYS11

PpLYR1 SlLyk10 Bd LYR1 OsNFR5
LYRIB MtLYR8 PpLYR2 SlLYK9 Bd LYR2
LYR 2 LIRIIA MtLYR10 LjLYS16 PpLYR6 AtLYK2 SlLYK2
LYRIIB MtLYR9 LjLYS15 PpLYR7 SlLYK15
LYR 3 LYRIIIA MtLYR3 LjLYS12 PpLYR3 AtLYK4 SlLYK4 Bd LYR4 OsLYK6
LYRIIIB MtLYR2 PpLYR4 SlLYK7

SlLYK6

LYRIIIC MtLYR4

MtLYR7

LjLYS13

LjLYS14

AtLYK5 Bd LYR3 OsLYK3

OsLYK2 OsLYK4

LYR 4 LYRIV MtLYR5

MtLYR6

LjLYS20 PpLYR5
LYK LYKI LYK1, LYK4, LYK5, LYK6, LYK7, LYK2, LYK3, LYK9, LYK8 LjLYS2

LjLYS1 LjNFR1 LjLYS6 LjLYS7

PpLYK2

PpLyk1

AtLYK1/

AtCERK1

SlLYK13

SlLYK1/ SlBti9 SlLYK12 SlLYK11

BdLYK1 OsCERK1
LYKII LYK10 LjLYS3/

EPR3

PpLYK3

PpLYK4

LYKII PpLYK5 AtLYK3 SlLYK3 BdLYK3
Receptor like Kinase RLK Mt-DMI2/

Mt-NORK

Lj-SYMRK Ps-SYM19 OsSYMRK

Transmission

Transcription

The Accommodation program

See also

References

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