Mitragyna speciosa
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| Species: | M. speciosa
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| Mitragyna speciosa | |
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal leaf harvested from a large tree native to Southeast Asia in the Rubiaceae family, first documented by Dutch colonial botanist Korthals. It is botanically related to the Corynanthe, Cinchona and Uncaria genera and shares some similar biochemistry. It is in the same family as coffee and the psychoactive plant Psychotria viridis. Other species in the Mitragyna genus are used medicinally in Africa, and also used for their wood.
Kratom is used for its psychoactive effects in its native region, with some use elsewhere in the world. In Southeast Asia the fresh leaves are usually chewed, often continuously, by workers or manual laborers seeking a numbing, stimulating effect. Elsewhere, the leaves are often made into an infusion or extracted into water and then evaporated into a tar that can be swallowed. Kratom is not often smoked, although this method does provide some effect.
Kratom contains many alkaloids including mitragynine (once thought to be the primary active), mitraphylline, and 7-hydroxymitragynine (which is currently the most likely candidate for the primary active chemical in the plant). Although structurally related to yohimbine and other tryptamines, its pharmacology is quite different, acting primarily as a mu-opioid receptor agonist. It also shares some adrenergic receptor activity similar to that of yohimbine. Kratom also contains alkaloids found in uña de gato, which are thought to play a beneficial role on the immune system and lower blood pressure, as well as epicatechin, a powerful antioxidant also found in dark chocolate and closely related to the EGCG that gives green tea its beneficial effects. Other active chemicals in kratom include raubasine (best known from Rauwolfia serpentina) and some yohimbe alkaloids such as corynantheidine.
Kratom has many potential medicinal uses, for example as a low grade analgesic comparable to codeine or propoxyphene, as an alternative to methadone, and as a source of other chemicals with a wide range of beneficial activities which could be isolated from the psychoactive constituents.
Effects
Kratom's pharmacology shares some elements of the activity of other substances including yohimbine. Kratom also has a yohimbe-like stimulant activity, and uncaria-like immunostimulant activity. Kratom's effects are reported to be relatively short-lived, typically fading after a few hours. Some experience nausea after drinking kratom tea. Kratom's extremely bitter taste also probably contributes to the nausea, which can be remedied with large amounts of sugar, honey, or artificial sweeteners.
Kratom can be addictive if taken at large doses daily, hence being banned in certain countries. Withdrawal does occur when used at this frequency and is unpleasant much the same as with opiates.
Minor alkaloids
Note that whole Mitragyna speciosa leaf also contains a partial mu-opioid agonist (9-hydroxycorynantheidine), and a mu-opioid antagonist (corynantheidine).[1] The combination of a full agonist (such as 7-hydroxymitragynine and Mitragynine) with an antagonist or partial agonist may be compared to the use of partial opioid agonists to interrupt opiate addiction. Buprenorphine is one such example of a partial agonist/antagonist that is FDA approved to treat addiction. It may be that ingesting whole kratom does not have the same addictive potential as 7-OHM alone.
Furthermore, kratom contains at least one alkaloid (rhynchophylline) that is a calcium channel blocker, and reduces NMDA-induced current. There is considerable research as to the role of NMDA receptor activity in the formation of dependence, and the symptoms of withdrawal. In 2005, Inturrisi demonstrated that co-administration of d-methadone (the isomer that lacks opioid activity, but is an NMDA antagonist) in small doses with morphine prevented the development of morphine tolerance in rats.[2] The presence of rhynchophylline in kratom should be investigated in order to determine its potential to modify the development of dependence.
Plant Description
The kratom is a tree, it usually grows to a height of 12-15 ft tall and 15 ft (4.6 m) wide. Depending on the species and location it can grow up to 40-50 feet tall. And in some cases has been known to reach near 100 ft (30 m).
The leaves of the Kratom tree are a dark green colour and can grow over 7 inches (180 mm) long and 4 inches (100 mm) wide. The flowers are yellow and grow in clusters.
The kratom tree likes it best to be in wet, humus soil, to have medium to full sun exposure, and an area protected from strong winds. [1][2][3]
Legal status
Kratom is a controlled substance in Thailand, Bhutan, Australia, Finland, Lithuania, Malaysia and Myanmar (Burma). A handful of people in Malaysia and possibly other countries are lobbying their governments to allow medical research into kratom as a potential prescription substance. However as of January 2007, Malaysia is moving to make kratom more illegal rather than less, and plans to reclassify it under the dangerous drugs law rather than the less severe poisonous substances laws.
See also
References
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[j] K. M. Babu, Ch. R. McCurdy, E.W. Boyer: Opioid receptors and legal highs: Salvia divi-norum and Kratom, Clinical Toxicology (2008) 46, 146-152 [k] E.W. Boyer, K. M. Babu, G. E. Macalino, W. Compton, Self-Treatment of Opioid With-drawal with a Dietary Supplement, Kratom, The American Journal on Addictions, 16: 352-356, 2007 [l] E.W. Boyer, K. M. Babu, J. E. Adkins, Ch. R. McCurdy, J. H. Halpern, Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth), Addiction, 103 (6). 1048-1050, 2008 [m] K. S. Grewal, Observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine, J Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1932, 46:251-71 und K. S. Grewal, The Effect of Mitragynine on Man, British Journal of Medical Psychology 1932, 12: 41-58 [n] S. Chittrakarn, K. Sawangjaroen, S. Prasettho, B. Janchawee, N. Keawpradub, Inhibitory effects of kratom leaf extract (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) on the rat gastrointestinal tract, Journal of Ethnopharmacology 116 (2008) 173-178 [o] http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/programs/forensicsci/microgram/mg0306/mg0306.pdf [p] S. Suwanlert, A study of kratom eaters in Thailand, UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics Vol. 27(3): 21-27, 1975 [q] Jansen, Prast Psychoactive properties of mitragynine (kratom), Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 1988, 20(4)455-457 {14} Hiromitsu Takayama: Chemistry and Pharmacology of Analgetic Indole Alkaloids from the Rubiaceous Plant, Mitrgyna speciosa; Review; Chem. Pharm. Bull. 52(8) 916-928 (2004) {15} Suchitra Thongpradichote, et. al.: Identification of opioid receptor subtypes in antino-ciceptive actions of supraspinally-administered mitragynine in mice; Life Sciences, Vol. 62, No. 16, Seite 1371-1378, 1998 {17b} http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drugs_concern/index.html {18} http://www.erowid.org/plants/kratom/kratom_info2.shtml {19} UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME, Vienna, BULLETIN ON NARCOTICS, Volume LVII, Nos. 1 and 2, 2005, S. 249-256, UNITED NATIONS New York, 2007 {20} Aekajit Chaiyawong: “Drugs Situation and the Drugs Information System in Thailand”, Global Workshop on Drug Information Systems: Activities, Methods and Future Oppor-tunities, Wien, 3.-5. Dezember 2001, unterstützt durch das “United Nations International Drug Control Programme under the Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse” (GAP). United Nations, New York, 2002, Weitere Informationen sind auf der GAP Inter-netseite www.undcp.org zu finden. {22} http://www.erowid.org/plants/kratom/kratom_article1.shtml