Leadership studies
is a multidisciplinary academic field of study that focuses on leadership in organizational contexts and in human life. Leadership studies has origins in the social sciences (e.g., sociology, anthropology, psychology), in humanities (e.g., history and philosophy), as well as in professional & applied fields of study (e.g., management and education). The field of leadership studies is closely linked to the field of organizational studies. As an academic area of inquiry, the study of leadership has been of interest to scholars from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds. Today, there are numerous academic programs (spanning several academic colleges and departments) related to the study of leadership.
Leadership in Higher Education
Leadership has become one of the fastest growing academic fields in higher education [1][2] [3] [4] At all levels, undergraduate through doctoral, a growing number of colleges and universities have begun developing not only individual courses, but entire degree programs specifically devoted to the study of leadership.[5]
Even among some of the more established and traditional academic disciplines such as engineering, education, and medicine, specialization and concentration areas have been developed around the study of leadership. Most of these academic programs have been designed to be multidisciplinary in nature—drawing upon theories and applications from related fields such as sociology, psychology, philosophy, and management. Such an approach, Rost (1991) has argued “allows scholars and practitioners to think radically new thoughts about leadership that are not possible from a unidisciplinary approach” (p. 2).[6]
History of Leadership as a Field of Study
The study of leadership can be dated back to Plato, Sun Tzu and Machiavelli; however, leadership has only become the focus of contemporary academic studies in the last 60 years, and particularly more so in the last two decades. Contemporary leadership scholars and researchers have often been questioned about the nature of their work, and its place within the academy, but much of the confusion surrounding leadership as a field of study may be attributed to a lack of understanding regarding inter- and multi- disciplinary academic fields of study in general.
The discipline (which encompasses a host of sub-fields) is filled with definitions, theories, styles, functions, competencies, and historical examples of successful and diverse leaders. Collectively, the research findings on leadership provide a far more sophisticated and complex view of the phenomenon than most of the simplistic views presented in the popular press.[7][8]
Some of the earliest studies on leadership include:
- The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure," and "consideration." These characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LDBQ) and the Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire (SDBQ). [9] By 1962, the LDBQ was on version XII.
- The Michigan Leadership Studies which began in the 1950s (Katz, Maccoby, & Morse, 1950)[10] and indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee centered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative leadership.
- McGregors Theory X & Theory Y developed by Douglas McGregor in the 1960s at MIT Sloan School of Management. These theories described employee motivation in the workforce. Both theories begin with the premise that the role of management is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for the economic benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge.
- Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid developed the orientation of "task orientation" and "people orientation" in leader behavior. They developed the leadership grid which focused on concern for results (on the one axis) and concern for people (on the other axis).
In addition to these studies, from an academic perspective leadership has been studied from several theoretical lenses:
- Trait & Behavioral theories of Leadership: Attempt to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective leadership.
- Situational & Contingency theories of Leadership: Incorporate environmental and situational considerations into leader behavior.
- Functional Leadership theory: Suggests that a leader’s primary responsibility is to see that whatever is necessary in relation to group needs is taken care of.
- Information-Processing Leadership theory: Focuses on the role of social perception in identifying leadership abilities.
- Self Leadership theory: Although behaviorally oriented, the essence of self leadership theory is that behaviors are directed toward the attainment of super-ordinate goals.
- Transactional & Transformational theories of Leadership: The transactional leader focuses on managerial reward and contingent valuation. The transformational leader focuses on motivation and goal attainment.
The first doctoral program in Leadership Studies was established at the University if San Diego in the School of Leadership and Eduction Sciences in 1979.[11] The first undergraduate school of Leadership Studies was established at the University of Richmond (The Jepson School) in 1992.[12]
Notable Leadership Scholars
- Bruce Avolio Clifton Chair in Leadership at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the Director of the Gallup Leadership Institute, and a Senior Research Scientist at the Gallup Organization.
- Bernard Bass: Was a distinguished professor emeritus in the School of Management at Binghamton University (State University of New York) and a member of the Academy of Senior Professionalsat Eckerd College in Florida. He was also the founding director of the Center for Leadership Studies at Binghamton and founding editor of The Leadership Quarterly journal.
- Warren Bennis: American scholar, organizational consultant and author, widely regarded as a pioneer of the contemporary field of Leadership Studies. Bennis is University Professor and Distinguished Professor of Business Administration and Founding Chairman of The Leadership Institute at the University of Southern California.
- Jean Lipman-Blumen: Thornton F. Bradshaw Professor of Public Policy and Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management Claremont Graduate University. In addition to her professorial roles at Claremont Graduate University, Professor Lipman-Blumen is co-founding director of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Leadership at the Drucker Ito Graduate School of Management. She also is Director of the Achieving Styles Institute, a Pasadena-based leadership and management consulting group.
- James McGregor Burns: Presidential biographer, authority on leadership studies, Woodrow Wilson Professor (emeritus) of Political Science at Williams College, and scholar at the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership at the University of Maryland, College Park. He received a Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award in 1971 for his Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom 1940-1945.
- Peter Drucker: Writer, management consultant, and self-described “social ecologist.” Widely considered to be the father of “modern management,” his 39 books and countless scholarly and popular articles explored how humans are organized across all sectors of society—in business, government and the nonprofit world.
- Alice Eagly: Social psychologist who has published widely on the psychology of attitudes, especially attitude change and attitude structure. She is equally devoted to the study of gender and social behavior.
- Ronald Heifitz: Co-founder of the Center for Public Leadership and King Hussein bin Talal Lecturer in Public Leadership at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. He is known worldwide for his seminal work on the practice and teaching of leadership.
- Paul Hersey: Behavioral scientist and entrepreneur. He is best known for developing Situational Leadership with Ken Blanchard, which is enunciated in their work Management of Organization Behavior, now in its ninth edition.
- Robert J. House: Principle Investigator of the Global Leadership And Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program (GLOBE) from 1993 through 2003. He was appointed the Joseph Frank Bernstein Professor Endowed Chair of Organization Studies at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania in 1988. He has published 130 journal articles. In total, his articles have been reprinted in approximately 50 anthologies of readings in Management and Organizational Behavior
- Jim Kouzes: Co-author with Barry Posner of the award-winning and best selling book, The Leadership Challenge, with over one million copies sold.
- Barry Posner: Dean of the Leavey School of Business as well as a Professor of Leadership at Santa Clara University.
- George Reed: Faculty member in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego. Before joining the faculty in 2007 he served for 27 years as a military police officer including six as the Director of of Command and Leadership Studies at the U.S. Army War College. Recipient of the American Society for Public Administration Marshall Dimock Award for the best lead article in Public Administration Review, 2007.
- Ronald Riggio: The Henry R. Kravis Professor of Leadership and Organizational Psychology and Director of the Kravis Leadership Institute at Claremont McKenna College.
- Joseph Rost: Was professor emeritus of leadership studies in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego. Author of Leadership for the 21st Century.
- Georgia Sorenson: Georgia Sorenson, Ph.D., a pioneer in the field of leadership studies, founded the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership at the University of Maryland in 1980. It was the first academic institution to focus on leadership scholarship and education for emergent leaders, women, minorities, and other underrepresented groups.
- Ralph Stogdill: With the publication of his first article on leadership, "Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: A Survey of the Literature," Ralph Stogdill became a leader in leadership research. This influential and much reprinted 1948 paper marked a turning point in Ralph's career, but more importantly it marked a turning point in the study of leadership.
- Victor Vroom: Business school professor at the Yale School of Management. Vroom's primary research was on the expectancy theory of motivation, which attempts to explain why individuals choose to follow certain courses of action in organizations, particularly in decision-making and leadership. His most well-known books are Work and Motivation, Leadership and Decision Making and The New Leadership. Vroom has also been a consultant to a number of corporations such as GE and American Express.
- Margaret Wheatley: writer and management consultant who studies organizational behavior. Her approach includes systems thinking, theories of change, chaos theory, leadership and the learning organization: particularly its capacity to self-organize.
Academic Journals
- Journal of Leadership Studies: The mission of the Journal of Leadership Studies is to publish leadership research and theoretical contributions that bridge the gap between scholarship and practice and that exemplify critical inquiry into contemporary organizational issues and paradigms. The journal promotes interdisciplinary and interorganizational theory, fostering dialogue that transcends industry specific contexts and that explores leadership's role in improving organizational practices and human life. Published material in the journal will include research-based and theoretical papers that explicitly address leadership on various social, cultural, and organizational contexts.
- The Leadership Quarterly: Is an international journal of political, social and behavioral science published in affiliation with the International Leadership Association (ILA).
- The Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies: The Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies is the Official Journal of the Midwest Academy of Management. The Journal publishes articles to advance the theory, research and practice of all aspects of leadership and organizations. Research results are preferred, but theoretical contributions and new applications are also appropriate. Although leadership topics are emphasized, any area of interest in organizational behavior, human resource management, strategy, international management, or entrepreneurship is also encouraged.
- The International Journal of Servant Leadership: The International Journal of Servant-Leadership is published by Gonzaga University in collaboration with the Larry Spears Center for Servant-leadership.
- The International Journal of Leadership Studies: Representing the multidisciplinary field of leadership, the IJLS publishes theoretically grounded research that enhances knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon of leadership at all levels within a variety of industries and organizations and seeks contributions that present leadership from different perspectives unique to different cultures, settings, and religions around the world.
- Leadership: Leadership is an international, peer-reviewed journal designed to provide an ongoing forum for academic researchers to exchange information, insights and knowledge based on both theoretical development and empirical research on leadership. It will publish original, high quality articles that contribute to the advancement of the study of leadership. The journal will be global in orientation and focus.
Associations and Organizations
- National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs
- International Leadership Association (ILA)
- Association of Leadership Educators, Inc.
- The Center for Creative Leadership
- The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership
Research Centers
- Leadership Institute at University of Southern California
- Leadership Institute at University of San Diego
- Gallup Leadership Institute at University of Nebraska-Lincoln
- Institute for the Advanced Study of Management at the Drucker School of Management
- Kravis Leadership Institute at Claremont Mckenna College
- Center for Leadership Studies at Binghamton University
- Leadership Research Institute
Academic Programs
The following is a list of doctoral, masters, and undergraduate programs related to the study of leadership. With some notable exceptions, this list does not include programs related to specific sub-areas of leadership (e.g., educational leadership, health care leadership, environmental leadership). The programs listed primarily focus on leadership, leadership studies, and organizational leadership.
Doctoral Programs Related to the Study of Leadership
- Alliant University: Ph.D. in Leadership
- Alvernia College: Ph.D. in Leadership
- Andrews University: Ph.D. in Leadership
- Antioch University: Ph.D. in Leadership & Change
- Arizona State University: Ed.D. in Leadership & Innovation
- Barry University: Ph.D. specialization in Leadership
- Binghamton University: Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior (specialization in Leadership & the Center for Leadership Studies)
- Boston College: Ph.D. in Organization Studies (specialization and faculty expertise in Leadership)
- Bowling Green State University: Ed.D. in Leadership Studies
- Capella University: Ph.D. in Organization and Management, Leadership Specialization
- Cardinal Stritch University: Ph.D. in Leadership for the Advancement of Learning & Service
- Chicago School of Professional Psychology, The: Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership (under development contact university for more information)
- College of Notre Dame of Maryland: Ph.D. in Instructional Leadership for Changing Populations
- Cranfield University (U.K.): Ph.D. Managing Executive Learning, Management and Leadership Development, and Organizational Learning
- Eastern University: Ph.D in Organizational Leadership
- Gannon University: Ph.D. in Organizational Learning and Leadership
- George Washington University, The: Ed.D. Executive Leadership
- Gonzaga University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- Grand Canyon University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
- Indiana University of Pennsylvania: Ph.D. in Administration & Leadership Studies
- Indiana Wesleyan University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
- Lancaster University (U.K.): Management Learning and Leadership
- Louisiana State University: Ph.D. in Human Resource and Leadership Development
- Marian College of Fond du Lac: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- North Carolina A&T University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- Northcentral University: Ph.D. specialization in Organizational Leadership
- Northwestern University: Ph.D. in Management and Organizations and Sociology (concentration in Leadership)
- Nova Southeastern University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
- Our Lady of the Lake University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- Pepperdine University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
- Regent University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- Saint Mary's University: Ed.D. in Leadership
- Shenandoah University: Ed.D in Organizational Leadership
- Simmons College: Ph.D. in Managerial Leadership in the Information Professions
- Spalding University: Ed.D. in Leadership Education
- Stanford University: Ph.D. in Organization Studies (Policy, Organization, and Leadership Studies)
- Teacher's College (Columbia University): Ph.D. in Adult Learning and Leadership
- Thierry Graduate School of Leadership (Belgium): Ph.D. in Leadership and Mastery of Change
- University of Arkansas: Ph.D. in Public Policy with a specialization in Public Policy Leadership
- University of Central Arkansas: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- University of Colorado, Colorado Springs: Ph.D. in Leadership, Research, and Policy
- University of Exeter (U.K.): Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- University of the Incarnate Word: Ph.D. Organizational Leadership
- University of Laverne: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
- University of Louisville: Ph.D. in Educational Leadership and Organization Development
- University of Maryland: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership and Policy Studies Specialization
- University of Maryland, Eastern Shore: Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
- University of Nebraska, Lincoln: Ph.D. in Human Sciences with a specialization in Leadership Studies
- University of Nebraska, Lincoln: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- University of Oklahoma (offered only to military): Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
- University of San Diego: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
- University of San Francisco: Ed.D. in Organizations & Leadership
- University of Victoria (Canada): Ph.D. in Leadership Studies (focus on social justice, school and/or community emphasis and life-long learning)
- Vanderbilt University: Ph.D. in Community Research and Action
- Walden University: Ph.D. in Applied Management and Decision Sciences, Leadership and Organizational Change Specialization
- Wilmington University: Ed.D in Organizational Leadership
Masters Programs Related to the Study of Leadership
- Albertus Mangus College: M.A. in Leadership
- American College, The: M.S. in Leadership
- Arizona State University: Master of Applied Leadership and Management
- Augsburg College: M.A. in Leadership
- Azusa Pacific University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Bastyr University: M.A. Applied Behavioral Science Degree in Consulting & Coaching in Organizations
- Bellevue University: M.A. in Leadership
- Bethel University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Biola University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Cabrini College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Canisius College: Master's in Communication and Leadership
- Chapman University: M.A. Organizational Leadership
- Chatham University: M.A. in Leadership and Organizational Transformation
- College Of Mount Saint Joseph: M.S. Organizational Leadership
- College Of Saint Catherine, The: M.A. Organizational Leadership
- College of Saint Mary: Master in Organizational Leadership
- Colorado State University (online): M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Daemen College: M.S. in Executive Leadership and Change
- Dominican University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Duquesne University: Several Master's Degree Programs
- Drake University: Adult Learning and Organizational Performance
- Eastern University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Fort Hays State University: Department of Leadership Studies, Master of Liberal Studies
- Fresno Pacific University: Master's in Leadership and Organizational Studies
- Geneva College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Gonzaga University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Hawai'i Pacific University: M.A. in Global Leadership and Sustainable Development
- Indiana University-Purdue University: M.S. Organizational Leadership and Supervision
- LaGrange University: Master's in Organizational Leadership
- Lewis University: M.A. in Leadership
- Lourdes College: Master of Organizational Leadership
- Marietta College: Executive Masters in Leadership Studies
- Marquette University: Master in Leadership Studies
- Marshall University: M.A. in Leadership Studies
- Maryville University: M.A. in Leadership Education
- Mercy College: Master of Organizational Leadership
- Mercyhurst College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Mountain State University: M.S.S.L. in Strategic Leadership
- National University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Neuman College: M.S. in Strategic Leadership
- North Central College: Master of Leadership Degree
- Northeastern University: M.S. in Leadership
- Northern Kentucky University: M.S. in Executive Leadership and Organizational Change
- Northwestern University: M.S. Learning and Organizational Change
- Norwich University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Nyack College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
- Our Lady of the Lake University: M.S. in Leadership Studies
- Pennsylvania State University: Master of Leadership Development
- Pfeiffer University At Charlotte: M.S. Organizational Change and Leadership
- Regent University: M.A. in Leadership Studies
- Rider University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
- Roberts Wesleyan University: M.S. in Strategic Leadership
- Saint Edwards: M.S. in Organizational Leadership and Ethics
- Saint Ambrose University: Master of Organizational Leadership
- Saint Mary of the Woods College: Master in Leadership Development
- Saint Mary's College of California: M.A. in Leadership
- Southern New Hampshire University: M.S. Organizational Leadership
- Stanford University: M.A. in Policy, Organization, and Leadership Studies
- University of Pennsylvania: Master of Organizational Dynamics
- University of Saint Francis: M.A. in Leadership Studies
- University of San Diego: M.A. in Leadership Studies
- University of San Diego: M.S. in Executive Leadership (School of Business)
- University of San Diego: M.S. in Global Leadership (School of Business)
- University of San Francisco: M.A. in Organizations & Leadership
- University of South Florida: MSM in Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness
- University of Southern California: Executive Masters of Leadership
- University of Southern Maine: Master of Leadership Studies
- University of Texas, El Paso: Master of Leadership Studies
- Vanderbilt University: M.Ed. program in Organizational Leadership
- Virginia Commonwealth University: M.Ed. Leadership Studies
- Woodbury College: Master of Organizational Leadership
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute: M.S. in Operations Design and Leadership
Undergraduate Programs Related to the Study of Leadership
- Albertson College: Leadership Studies Minor
- Asbury College: Leadership Studies Concentration
- Baldwin-Wallace College: The Brain Leadership Program, Minor in Leadership Studies
- Bellevue University: Leadership B.A., College of Arts and Sciences
- California State University, Chico: Leadership Studies Minor
- Central Michigan University: Leadership Minor
- Chapman University: Bachelor of Arts, Organizational Leadership Minor
- Christopher Newport University: Leadership Studies Minor
- Claflin University: Leadership Studies Minor
- Columbia College: Leadership Studies
- East Tennessee State University: Minor in Leadership Studies
- Fitchburg State College: Leadership Academy
- Fort Hays State University: Department of Leadership Studies
- Graceland University: Leadership Minor
- Humboldt State University: Leadership Studies Minor
- Indiana University, College of Arts and Sciences: Leadership Minor
- Indiana University, School of Health: Leadership Minor
- Kansas State University: Leadership Studies Minor
- Marietta College: Leadership Studies Major & Minor
- Marquette University: Organizations & Leadership
- Methodist College: Tally Leadership Program
- Middle Tennessee State University: Leadership Studies Minor
- Mount Ida College: Leadership Studies Minor
- National University: Bachelor of Science in Organizational Leadership
- North Central College: Organizational Leadership Minor
- North Central University: Leadership Development Minor
- Peace College: Leadership Studies Major
- Pennsylvania State University: Bachelors in Organizational Leadership
- Regent University: B.S. in Organizational Leadership and Management
- St. Norbert College: Leadership Studies Minor
- Seattle Pacific University: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of California at Davis: Contemporary Leadership Minor
- University of Central Florida: The LEAD Scholars Program
- University of Colorado at Boulder: Chancellor's Leadership Residential Academic Program
- University of Denver: Pioneer Leadership Program Minor
- University of Kansas: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of Minnesota: Leadership Minor
- University of Missouri: Leadership & Public Service Minor
- University of Nebraska, Lincoln: Leadership & Communication Minor
- University of North Carolina, Wilmington: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of Rhode Island: Leadership Minor
- University of Richmond: Jepson School of Leadership Studies
- University of San Diego: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of South Dakota: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of South Florida: Leadership Studies Minor
- University of Southern California: Critical Approaches to Leadership Minor
- University of Southern Maine: Leadership and Organizational Studies, B.A.
- University of Texas, Permian Basin: Leadership Studies Major & Minor
- Virginia Military Institute: Leadership Studies Minor
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University: Residential Leadership Community of Virginia Tech
- Wartburg College: Wartburg College Leadership Certificate Program
- Washington State University: Leadership Minor
- Westminster College: Leadership Studies Minor
- Wright State University: Organizational Leadership Major
References
- ^ Brungardt, C. L. (1996). The making of leaders: A review of the research in leadership development and education. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 3(3), 81-95.
- ^ Brungardt, C. L., Gould, L. V., Moore, R., & Potts, J. (1997). The emergence of leadership studies: Linking the traditional outcomes of liberal education with leadership development, The Journal of Leadership Studies, 4(3), 53-67.
- ^ Rost, J.C. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. New York: Praeger.
- ^ Rost, J. C. & Baker, R. A. (2000). Leadership education in colleges: Toward as 21st century paradigm. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 7(1), 3-12.
- ^ Guide to College Majors in Leadership, What is Leadership and Organizational Management? http://www.worldwidelearn.com/online-education-guide/business/leadership-major.htm
- ^ Rost, J.C. (1991). Leadership for the twenty-first century. New York: Praeger.
- ^ Doh, J. P (2003). Can leadership be taught? Perspectives from management educators. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 2(1), 54-67.
- ^ Daloz Parks, S. (2005). Leadership can be taught: A bold approach for a complex world. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press.
- ^ The Ohio State University, Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)http://fisher.osu.edu/offices/fiscal/lbdq
- ^ Katz, D., Maccoby, N., and Morse, N. 1950. Productivity, Supervision, and Morale in an Office Situation. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
- ^ University of San Diego, School of Leadership and Education Sciences, History and Facts http://www.sandiego.edu/soles/about/history_and_facts.php
- ^ University of Richmond, Jepson School of Leadership Studies http://admissions.richmond.edu/majors/leadership/index.html