Diet and obesity
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Diet plays an important role in the genesis of obesity. Personal choices, advertising, social customs and cultural influences, as well as food availability and pricing all play a role in determining what and how much we eat.
Dietary energy supply
The dietary energy supply is the food available for human consumption, usually expressed in kilocalories per person per day. It gives an overestimate of the total amount of food consumed as it reflects both food consumed and food wasted.[2] The per capita dietary energy supply varies markedly between different regions and countries. It has also changed significantly over time.[3] From the early 1970s to the late 1990s, the average calories available per person per day (the amount of food bought) has increased in all part of the world except Eastern Europe and parts of Africa. The United States had the highest availability with 3654 calories per person in 1996.[4] This increased further in 2002 to 3770.[5] During the late 1990s, Europeans had 3394 calories per person, in the developing areas of Asia there were 2648 calories per person, and in sub-Sahara Africa people had 2176 calories per person.[4][6]
Average calorie consumption
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In the period 1971 – 2004, the average number of calories which women consumed in the United States increase by 335 calories per day (1542 calories in 1971 and 1877 calories in 2004). For men the average increase was 168 calories per day (2450 calories in 1971 and 2618 calories in 2004). Most of these extra calories came from an increase in carbohydrate consumption rather than an increase in fat consumption.[8] The primary sources of these extra carbohydrates were sweetened beverages, which now accounts for almost 25 percent of daily calories in young adults in America.[9] As these estimates are based on a person's recall, they may underestimate the amount of calories actually consumed.[8]
Fast food
As societies become increasingly reliant on energy-dense fast-food meals, the association between fast food consumption and obesity becomes more concerning.[10] In the United States consumption of fast food meal has tripled and calorie intake from fast food has quadrupled between 1977 and 1995.[11] Consumption of sweetened drinks is also believed to be a major contributor to the rising rates of obesity.[12][13]
Fad Diets
New evidence suggests that celebrity diet crazes can actually contribute to obesity. Fads such as the Lemonade Diet (better known as the Master Cleanse), Cabbage Soup Diet and others, all rely on participants to restrict their food consumption to limited choices and incredibly small portions. The American Heart Association said "Eating should be enjoyable. These diets are so monotonous and boring that it's almost impossible to stay on them for long periods." Without dietary variation, experts believe that it is virtually impossible to stay committed to such plans and therefore people fall off the dietary wagon. [14]
Portion size
The portion size of many prepackage and restaurant foods have increased in both the United States and Denmark since the 1970s.[8] Fast food serving for example 2 to 5 times larger than they were in the 1980s. Evidence has shown that larger portion of energy-dense foods lead to greater energy intake and thus to greater rates of obesity.[15][16]
Social policy and change
Agricultural policy and techniques in the United States and Europe have led to lower food prices. In the United States, subsidization of corn, soy, wheat, and rice through the U.S. farm bill has made the main sources of processed food cheap compared to fruits and vegetables.[17]
Metabolism
Evidence does not support the commonly expressed view that some obese people eat little yet gain weight due to a slow metabolism. On average obese people have a greater energy expenditure than normal weight or thin people.[18] This is because it takes more energy to maintain an increased body mass.[19] Obese people also underreport how much food they consume compared to those of normal weight.[20] Tests of human subjects carried out in a calorimeter support this conclusion.[21]
References
- ^ a b "Compendium of food and agriculture indicators - 2006". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
- ^ "Compendium of food and agriculture indicators - 2006". FAO. Retrieved February 18, 2009.
- ^ "Compendium of food and agriculture indicators - 2006". UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ a b "Calories per capita per day" (gif). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "www.fao.org" (PDF). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "USDA: frsept99b". USDA. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "In the Long Run" (pdf). USDA. Retrieved February 17, 2009.
- ^ a b c Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL (2004). "Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 53 (4): 80–2.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Caballero B (2007). "The global epidemic of obesity: An overview". Epidemiol Rev. 29: 1–5. doi:10.1093/epirev/mxm012. PMID 17569676.
- ^ Rosenheck R (2008). "Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk". Obes Rev. 9 (6): 535–47. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x. PMID 18346099.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E (1999). "Nutrient contribution of food away from home". In Frazão E (ed.). Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. pp. 213–239.
- ^ Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB (2006). "Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 84 (2): 274–88. PMID 16895873.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL (2009). "Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity". Obes Rev. 10 (1): 68–75. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x. PMID 18764885.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Dunham, Deborah (November 2009). "Fad Diets Make Obesity Crisis Worse". That's Fit. Retrieved November 2009.
{{cite web}}: Check|authorlink=value (help); Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); External link in|authorlink= - ^ Ledikwe JH, Ello-Martin JA, Rolls BJ (2005). "Portion sizes and the obesity epidemic". J. Nutr. 135 (4): 905–9. PMID 15795457.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Steenhuis IH, Vermeer WM (2009). "Portion size: review and framework for interventions". Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 6: 58. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-6-58. PMC 2739837. PMID 19698102.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Pollan, Michael (22 April 2007). "You Are What You Grow". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- ^ Kushner, Robert (2007). Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. p. 158. ISBN 1-59745-400-1. Retrieved April 5, 2009.
- ^ Adams JP, Murphy PG (2000). "Obesity in anaesthesia and intensive care". Br J Anaesth. 85 (1): 91–108. doi:10.1093/bja/85.1.91. PMID 10927998.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Peter G. Kopelman, Ian D. Caterson, Michael J. Stock, William H. Dietz (2005). Clinical obesity in adults and children: In Adults and Children. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 140-511672-2.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "mdPassport". Retrieved December 31, 2008.
