Mitragyna speciosa
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (September 2009) |
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| Species: | M. speciosa
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Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal leaf harvested from a large tree in the Rubiaceae family native to Southeast Asia. It was first formally documented by the Dutch colonial botanist Pieter Korthals. It is botanically related to the Corynanthe, Cinchona and Uncaria genera and shares some similar biochemistry. It is in the same family as coffee and the psychoactive plant Psychotria viridis. Other species in the Mitragyna genus are used medicinally in Africa, and also used for their wood.
Kratom has been traditionally used for its psychoactive properties in Thailand and Malaysia, although it is now illegal in these countries.[1] In Southeast Asia the fresh leaves are commonly chewed, often continuously, by workers or manual laborers seeking a numbing, stimulating effect.[1] Less commonly, the leaves are decocted or extracted into water and then evaporated into a tar that can be swallowed. Kratom is not often smoked due to the active alkaloids being destroyed by the heat.[citation needed]
Kratom contains many alkaloids including mitragynine (once thought to be the primary active), mitraphylline, and 7-hydroxymitragynine (which is currently the most likely candidate for the primary active chemical in the plant).[1] Although 7-hydroxymitraygynie and mitragynine are structurally related to yohimbine and other tryptamines, their pharmacology is quite different, acting primarily as mu-opioid receptor agonists. Other active chemicals in kratom include raubasine (best known from Rauwolfia serpentina) and some yohimbe alkaloids such as corynantheidine.[citation needed]
Effects
Kratom's pharmacology shares some elements of the activity of other herbal substances including yohimbine.[citation needed] It has the paradoxical property of having both stimulant and depressant actions.[1] Kratom's psychoactive effects are reported to be relatively short-lived, typically fading after a few hours.
Withdrawal
As with most other opiate receptor agonists, kratom is addictive and withdrawal symptoms may occur after prolonged regular use. At this time, no scientific research has been done on kratom addiction or withdrawal in humans, but anecdotal reports indicate that this withdrawal is often less severe than from opioids, but heavy users may experience a more significant withdrawal syndrome comparable to that from opioids. Withdrawal symptoms can include depression, fatigue, restlessness and insomnia.[2]
Physiology
The most potent leaves generally come from older trees, most of which grow on mildly acidic jungle type soils[citation needed]. Alkaloid content is a function of age, genetics, soil, location, and season. Alkaloid production is highest in late summer and early fall.
Plant description
Kratom trees usually grow to a height of 12–15 ft tall and 15 ft (4.6 m) wide, although under the right conditions, certain species can reach to 40 ft (12 m)–100 ft (30 m) in height tall.
The leaves of the Kratom tree are a dark green colour and can grow to over 7 inches (180 mm) long and 4 inches (100 mm) wide. The flowers are yellow and grow in clusters.[citation needed]
The kratom tree likes it best to be in wet, humid, fertile soil, to have medium to full sun exposure, and an area protected from strong winds.
Legal status
Kratom is a controlled substance in Thailand, Bhutan, Australia, Finland, Denmark, Poland, Lithuania,[3] Malaysia and Myanmar (Burma). The United States Drug Enforcement Administration has added Kratom to their list of drugs and chemicals of concern.
See also
References
 | This article has an unclear citation style. (September 2009) |
- ^ a b c d Chittrakarn S, Keawpradub N, Sawangjaroen K, Kansenalak S, Janchawee B (2010). "The neuromuscular blockade produced by pure alkaloid, mitragynine and methanol extract of kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.)". J Ethnopharmacol. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2010.03.035. PMID 20371282.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ http://www.erowid.org/plants/kratom/kratom_effects.shtml
- ^ http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=328773
- Notes
- K. M. Babu, Ch. R. McCurdy, E.W. Boyer: Opioid receptors and legal highs: Salvia divi-norum and Kratom, Clinical Toxicology * 46, 146-152
- E.W. Boyer, K. M. Babu, G. E. Macalino, W. Compton, Self-Treatment of Opioid With-drawal with a Dietary Supplement, Kratom, The American Journal on Addictions, 16: 352-356, 2007
- E.W. Boyer, K. M. Babu, J. E. Adkins, Ch. R. McCurdy, J. H. Halpern, Self-treatment of opioid withdrawal using kratom (Mitragynia speciosa korth), Addiction, 103 *. 1048-1050, 2008
- K. S. Grewal, Observations on the pharmacology of mitragynine, J Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1932, 46:251-71 und K. S. Grewal, The Effect of Mitragynine on Man, British Journal of Medical Psychology 1932, 12: 41-58
- http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/programs/forensicsci/microgram/mg0306/mg0306.pdf
- S. Suwanlert, A study of kratom eaters in Thailand, UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics Vol. 27*: 21-27, 1975
- Jansen, Prast Psychoactive properties of mitragynine (kratom), Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 1988, 20*-457
- Hiromitsu Takayama: Chemistry and Pharmacology of Analgetic Indole Alkaloids from the Rubiaceous Plant, Mitrgyna speciosa; Review; Chem. Pharm. Bull. 52* 916-928 *
- Suchitra Thongpradichote, et al.: Identification of opioid receptor subtypes in antino-ciceptive actions of supraspinally-administered mitragynine in mice; Life Sciences, Vol. 62, No. 16, Seite 1371-1378, 1998
- http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drugs_concern/index.html
- UNITED NATIONS OFFICE ON DRUGS AND CRIME, Vienna, BULLETIN ON NARCOTICS, Volume LVII, Nos. 1 and 2, 2005, S. 249-256, UNITED NATIONS New York, 2007
- Aekajit Chaiyawong: “Drugs Situation and the Drugs Information System in Thailand”, Global Workshop on Drug Information Systems: Activities, Methods and Future Oppor-tunities, Wien, 3.-5. Dezember 2001, unterstützt durch das “United Nations International Drug Control Programme under the Global Assessment Programme on Drug Abuse” (GAP). United Nations, New York, 2002, Weitere Informationen sind auf der GAP Inter-netseite www.undcp.org zu finden.