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Immersion baptism

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Immersion baptism (also known as baptism by immersion or, if the immersion is total, baptism by submersion) is a method of baptism that is distinguished from baptism by affusion (pouring) and by aspersion (sprinkling), sometimes without specifying whether the immersion is total or partial,[1][2][3][4][5] but very commonly with the indication that the person baptized is immersed completely.[6][7][8][9]

Less common interpretation of "immersion baptism": (15th-century painting by Masaccio, Brancacci Chapel, Florence)
More common interpretation of "immersion baptism" (baptism by submersion in a North American church)

The term is less commonly applied to some specific mode of baptism that involves partial, not total, immersion. Thus, some scholars use it of a mode of baptism by the partial immersion of a person whose head is dipped in water.[10][11][12] Others use it to refer to a mode of baptism through partial immersion of a person who stands or kneels in water, while the baptizer pours water on his or her upper body, a mode of baptism that these writers distinguish from affusion baptism.[13][14][15][16]

Word meanings

Meaning of the English word immersion

The English word immersion is derived from the late Latin noun immersionem, which is turn comes from the Latin verb immergere (in- "into" + mergere "plunge", "dip")[17] It can be qualified as "total" or "partial". Standard general English dictionaries register its use in connection with baptism in the sense of submersion,[18] but also in the sense of partial immersion.[19][20] And thesauri (which group together words with similar meanings, in contrast to dictionaries, which give definitions) include "submersion" among words that have a similar meaning.

Meaning of the Greek word baptizo in the New Testament

Modern professional lexicography defines βαπτίζω as dip, plunge or immerse,[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34] but never as standing in water having water poured over the head, which standard Bible dictionaries define as affusion.[35][36][37][38][39][40][41] Although the Greek word βαπτίζω does not exclusively mean dip, plunge or immerse (outside the New Testament it is used with literal and figurative meanings such as 'sink', 'overwhelmed', 'go under', overborne'[42]), lexical sources note that this is the usual meaning of the word in both the Septuagint[43][44][45] and the New Testament.[46]

For more details concerning the meaning of the word baptizo in the Greek of the New Testament, see New Testament meaning of the word.

Baptism in the New Testament

A river baptism, by submersion, in North Carolina at the turn of the 20th century

Christian theologians such as John Piper use several parts of the New Testament to support full immersion (submersion) as the intended form of baptism:

1) The meaning of the word baptizo in Greek is essentially "dip" or "immerse," not sprinkle, 2) The descriptions of baptisms in the New Testament suggest that people went down into the water to be immersed rather than having water brought to them in a container to be poured or sprinkled (Matthew 3:6, "in the Jordan;" 3:16, "he went up out of the water;" (John 3:23, "much water there;" (Acts 8:38, "went down into the water"). 3) Immersion fits the symbolism of being buried with Christ (Romans 6:1–4; Colossians 2:12).[47]

Baptism by submersion in a river

R. T. France uses similar arguments:

The fact that he chose a permanent and deep river suggests that more than a token quantity of water was needed, and both the preposition "in" (the Jordan) and the basic meaning of the verb "baptize" probably indicate immersion. In v. 16 Matthew will speak of Jesus "coming up out of the water".[48]

The question of the precise meaning of the word βαπτίζω, as used in the New Testament, is dealt with above.

On Piper's assertions about "going down into" and "coming up out of" water and John's baptizing in a certain place because there was "much water there", and on the symbolism in the writings of Paul, Eerdmans Bible Dictionary, which uses "immersion" in the sense of "total immersion", says

The baptism of 3000 in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:41), a city without a river, casts doubt on the usual assumption that all NT baptisms were by immersion. Indeed, it can be questioned whether the NT proves that immersion was used at all (though almost certainly it was). Ancient iconography persistently shows Jesus standing in water to his waist (hence the going down and the coming up of the Synoptics and of the story of the eunuch in Act 8:36-38, as well as the need for abundant water in John 3:23), with the Baptizer pouring water over Jesus' head. When churches began to build baptisteries, some were deep enough to stand in but not broad enough to lie down in – a strange fact if immersion was the invariable mode handed down from the apostles. Rom 6:4 may refer to mode as well as meaning; but that is not certain; it could also refer to timing, if baptism in Rome during Paul's time was administered primarily at Easter, as certainly it was there in subsequent centuries.[49]

With regard to the two Pauline metaphors regarding baptism, Howard Marshall agrees with this analysis: "There are only two passages relating to Christian baptism in the New Testament which might be taken to demand as their background the practice of immersion. These are Rom 6.4 and Col 2.12 where the plunging of the baptized beneath the water and their return to the surface has often been thought to symbolize their death, burial and resurrection with Christ. The analogy between baptism and dying and rising with Christ is not uncommon at the sermonic level, but there is less unanimity among the more recent commentators. But it is important to note that the source of Paul's language would appear to lie not so much in an interpretation of the rite of immersion as in the historical facts of Christ's death and resurrection. The theological point which Paul is making is thus not drawn from baptism as such but from the historical fact of what happened to Christ, and hence it is not tied to a particular mode of baptism."[50]

With regard to the going down into water for baptism, mentioned by Piper and France, the same Greek preposition εἰς is used when immersion in the sense of submersion is clearly not implied, as when Peter is told to go to the sea and take the first fish that came up (Matthew 17:27). In chapter 8 of the Acts of the Apostles, in which Philip and the Ethiopian eunuch are said to have both gone down "into the water", the preposition εἰς appears 11 times, but only once is it commonly translated as "into"; in the other verses in which it appears it is best translated as "to".[51] The same ambiguity pertains to the preposition ἐκ.[52]

Members of some modern churches thus claim different interpretations of what is supposed to be implicit in the Biblical descriptions and metaphors concerning baptism.[53][54]

Earliest description of Christian baptism outside the New Testament

The Didache or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an anonymous book of 16 short chapters, is probably the earliest known written instructions, outside of the Bible, for administering baptism. The first version of it was written c. 60–80 AD.[55] The second, with insertions and additions, was written c. 100–150 AD.[55] This work, rediscovered in the 19th century, provides a unique look at Christianity in the Apostolic Age. Its instructions on baptism are as follows:

Now about baptism: this is how to baptize. Give public instruction on all these points, and then baptize in running water, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.. If you do not have running water, baptize in some other. If you cannot in cold, then in warm. If you have neither, then pour water on the head three times in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Before the baptism, moreover, the one who baptizes and the one being baptized must fast, and any others who can. And you must tell the one being baptized to fast for one or two days beforehand.[56][57]

This text did not prescribe whether the immersion in the water should be total or not.[58]

Archaeological evidence

Baptism in early Christian art.
Catacombs of San Callisto: Baptism in a 3rd-century painting

In The Archaeology of Baptism (1876) Wolfrid Cote`devoted much space to the literary rather than archaeological evidence. Quoting Prudentius, who in his `Psychomachia spoke of the "bathed chests" of the baptized, and the views of two earlier Italian archaeologists, Cote stated that "the primitive mode appears to have been this: The administrator and candidate both standing in the water the former placed his right hand on the head of the candidate, and, pronouncing the baptismal words, gently bowed him forward, till he was completely immersed in the water" (p. 31). He included in his book a woodcut of a fresco in the Catacomb of San Callisto (the painting that is here reproduced in the image on the right), and reported that one archaeologist interpreted it as a youth being baptized by affusion, while for another the youth standing in the water was "immersed in a cloud of water". Cote described this painting as of great antiquity, probably of the 4th or 5th century, while remarking that it is impossible to ascertain the precise age of the pictures in the catacombs of Rome (pp. 34-35). The other paintings that Cote described are of much later periods, while the mosaic in the Baptistery of San Giovanni in Fonte, in Ravenna (erected in the 4th century), which shows John baptizing Jesus by pouring water on his head from a cup, Cote explained as the product of later restoring (pp. 177-178). The font in this baptistery Cote described as ten feet in diameter and three and a half feet deep. Cote listed 67 still existing Italian baptisteries dating from the 4th to the 14th centuries, all of which he understood to have been used for total immersion (pp. 160-161). He made no mention of any pre-Constantine evidence.

In 1903 Clement F. Rogers published "Baptism and Christian Archaeology". This was a study of the archaeological evidence, both the positive evidence that paintings and carvings on sarcophagi etc. provide about how baptism actually was conferred, and the negative evidence given by the structure of baptismal fonts on how it could not have been conferred. He used literary sources plentifully but merely for illustration. For the first three centuries (i.e. before the time of Constantine) direct archaeological evidence is limited to pictures of baptism in the catacombs of Rome. Rogers concluded that "the direct evidence from archaeology alone may not be conclusive to show that in pre-Constantinian times baptism by affusion only was practiced generally or indeed in any one single case; but it does show that there was nothing repugnant in it to the general mind, that no stress was laid on total immersion, that the most important moments were held to be those when water was poured over the catchumen, and when the minister laid his hand on his head. This, taken in connexion with the known customs of later ages, make it more than probable that the usual method of administration was by affusion only." (pp. 257-258) Taking into account the positive archaeological evidence of post-Constantinian times, Roger concludes: "All the evidence of archaeology goes to prove that the essential part of baptism was considered in the early Church to be the pouring of water over the candidate's head by the bishop, or the guiding his head under a descending stream, followed by the laying on of hands"; he adds: "There remains the question, whether this was preceded by a self-immersion" (p. 304). To answer this question, he examines the negative evidence of ancient baptismal fonts, especially those found in archaeological sites, providing on pp. 347-349 a Synoptic Table of Fonts, with date, shape, diameter and depth, showing that some of them could not have been intended for full immersion.

In his "Churches Separated from Rome" (1907), Louis Duchesne responded to accusations by Eastern Orthodox that the Roman Catholic was corrupted because of "the Filioque, baptism by affusion, unleavened bread, &c." (p. 49), by pointing to the absence of any ancient representation of baptism that showed the neophyte actually being immersed totally.[59]

In the 1940s, Richard C.H. Lenski, citing Rogers with favour, maintained that the archaeological evidence certainly pointed to baptism by pouring and not by submersion[60]

Alois Stenzel's 1958 study of baptism with a focus on liturgy[61] argued that both immersion and affusion were practised by the early Church, since some baptismal pools which have been uncovered were too shallow for baptism and pictorial evidence favoured affusion.[62]

An article "Baptism in the Early Church" by George Rice (1981), in "Bible and Spade" cited Cote with favour and claimed that archaeology "overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries".[63] Rice cites in particular imagery in the Catacomb of San Ponziano[64] and a crypt in the catacomb of Santa Lucina (p. 126), as well as a 9th- or 10th-century fresco in the basilica of San Clemente (p. 127); he also states that "pictures of Jesus standing in water while John pours water over His head are of a much later date than those depicting immersion and they demonstrate the change in the mode of baptism that came into the church". He mentions a 4th-century baptistery sufficiently large for immersion,[65] Rice says that archaeological evidence demonstrates some early baptismal fonts large enough for adult immersion were later made smaller or replaced, to accommodate affusion baptism of infants,[66] leading to mistakes in the dating of art works by 20th-century studies.[67]

In his contribution to the 1986 11th International Archaeology Congress on "What do the texts teach us on the equipment and furnishings needed for baptism in southern Gaul and northern Italy?" Jean-Charles Picard, concluded that the texts speak only of immersion and that the area has no archaeological images of baptism by pouring water on the head. [68]

In 1987, on the basis of archaeology and parallels with Jewish practice, Sanford La Sor considered it likely that total immersion was also Christian practice.[69]

In the same year, Lothar Heiser, in his study of baptism in the Orthodox Church, concluded on the basis of the literary and pictorial evidence in that field that "the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font"; but acknowledges that in present Greek practice the priest places the infant being baptized as far down in the water as possible and scoops water over the head so as to cover the child fully with water.[70]

In 1995, Renate Pillinger concluded from the evidence provided by images and buildings and by some literary sources that it was usual for the baptizand to stand in water no more than hip-deep and for the baptizer to pour water over him.[71]

With regard to the shallow baptismal fonts that archaeologists had discovered, Malka Ben Pechat expressed in 1999 the view that full immersion was possible even in small fonts with a mere 60 centimetres (less than 2 feet) of water, while the fonts that were even shallower were intended for the baptism of infants.[72]

21st-century views

The most impressive 21st-century study of Christian baptism in all its aspects is Everett Ferguson's Baptism in the Early Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries[73] In the close of his book Ferguson devoted four pages (457-460) to summarizing his position on the mode of baptism and came down very strongly for the view that the normal early-Christian mode of baptism was by full immersion.[74]

He observed that "those who approach the study of baptism from the standpoint of archaeology tend to find greater probability that affusion, or perfusion was a normal practice; those who come from the literary evidence see a greater likelihood of immersion, or submersion, being the normal practice"; but he intended his own comprehensive survey to give coherence to the evidence (p. 857).

Ferguson dismissed Rogers' 1903 study as dated with regard to both the depictions of baptism and his survey of the baptismal fonts.[75]

Like Rice, whom he did not mention, Ferguson said that the size of the baptismal fonts was progressively reduced in connection with the prevalence of infant baptism,[76][page needed][77][78] although there are a few cases where larger fonts are later than the smaller ones (p. 849). Ferguson also stated: "The predominant number of baptismal fonts permitted immersion, and many were so large as to defy any reason for their existence other than immersion" (p. 834).

In the 21st century there are also writers who, on the basis of the archaeological data, have maintained that total immersion may not have been the only normal mode of baptism among early Christians.

James L. Houlden, distinguishing between submersion and (partial) immersion, wrote: "Immersion ... involves the person kneeling in the font, with water reaching only part of the body, water then being poured over the head, sometimes in large quantities; there are many more examples of this kind surviving, sometimes as archaeological remains, from antiquity.[79]

The same distinction may possibly be present in the statement "Archaeological evidence from the early centuries shows that baptism was sometimes administered by submersion or immersion" in the Oxford Dictionary of the Bible (2004).

Maxwell Johnson's 2007 opinion was: "We do not know enough about specific baptismal practices within the various New Testament communities to suggest that one mode of baptismal administration was normatively practiced over another."[80]

Howard Marshall wrote in 2002: "Archaeological evidence supports the view that in some areas Christian baptism was administered by affusion. Discoveries of early baptisteries shows that they were incapable of being used for immersion. With the exception of the find at Dura Europos the evidence is admittedly not very early (that given by Emminghaus is from the fifth to the seventh centuries). But it is corroborated by the reference in Did. 7.3 to sprinkling with water as an acceptable substitute where a fuller supply of water is not available."[81]

Commenting on this contribution by Marshall, in which he spoke of the archaeological evidence, and on another by Ferguson to the same publication, the editors Porter and Cross commented: "Howard Marshall puts forward a compelling argument that, while immersion was the general rule for baptism in New Testament times, there are a number of indications that affusion (and possibly sprinkling) were also practised, while Ferguson's study of the Epistle of Barnabas includes evidence only for immersion. Both essays demonstrate that the evidence of the New Testament and early Church is not as evident as is often made out and point the way forward for further studies in this area."[82]

Archaeological considerations concerning ancient baptisteries also led Laurie Guy to state: "Numerous baptisteries have a depth even less than the one at Dura-Europos, and those therefore tend to rule out full immersion (though allowing for affusion or for the immersion of the head without the immersion of the whole body). The church most likely practiced full immersion, partial immersion and affusion at various times and places in the early centuries, with sprinkling being practiced rarely (and probably only for medical reasons) during that time period."[83]

Internet-available illustrations of ancient Christian representations of baptism from as early as the second century include those in C.F Rogers, Baptism and Christian Archaeology,[84] the chapter "The Didache and the Catacombs" of Philip Schaff's The Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles,[85] and Wolfrid Cote's The Archaeology of Baptism.[86]

Arguments in favour of one of these views

The five most commonly cited professional archaeological studies carried out in the last twenty five years agree on the same conclusions on the archaeological and literary evidence. On the basis of archaeological and textual evidence, Sanford La Sor (1987), considers it likely that the archaeological evidence favours total immersion.[87] Lothar Heiser (1986),[88] likewise understands the literary and pictorial evidence to indicate total immersion.[89] Jean-Charles Picard (1989),[90] reaches the same conclusion,[91] and so does Malka Ben Pechat (1989).[92] The latest comprehensive survey of previous studies and examination of the archaeological and literary evidence in combination, a study by Everett Ferguson (2009), confirms the findings of La Sor, Heiser, Picard, and Pechat.[93][94]

Later use

Immersion baptism, understood as required total submersion of the body is required by Baptists, as enunciated in the 1689 Baptist Catechism: "Baptism is rightly administered by immersion, or dipping the whole body of the person in water, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit",[95] indicating that the whole body must be immersed, not just the head.

Immersion baptism as some define it on the basis of archeological evidence, was generally employed at least from the 2nd century, yielding to the affusion method in the West from about the 8th century, but still in use in the East.[15] It is also the form presented in the Key of Truth, the text described as the manual of the old Armenian Baptists,[96] which lays down that the person to be baptized "shall come on his knees into the midst of the water" and there make a profession of faith to "the elect one", who "instantly takes the water into his hands, and ... shall directly or indirectly empty out the water over the head",[97]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Baptism (Gr. baptizein, 'to dip in water') Initiation into the Christian faith through a worship ceremony in which water is applied by sprinkling (aspersion), pouring (affusion), or immersion while the Trinitarian formula is spoken … Main modes of baptism are immersion (dipping or plunging), pouring (affusion), and sprinkling (aspersion)." – Donald K. McKim, Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms (Westminster John Knox Press 1996), p. 25
  2. ^ "Baptism. The practice of sprinkling with, pouring on or immersing in water as an act of Christian initiation and obedience to Christ’s own command." – Grenz, Guretzki & Nordling (eds.), Pocket dictionary of theological terms (Intervarsity Press 1999), p. 18
  3. ^ "In Christianity, baptism—either by plunging in water or by sprinkling with it—represents the first act of incorporation 'into Christ' and into the fellowship of the church." – Fahlbusch & Bromiley (eds.), The Encyclopedia of Christianity, volume 1, (Eerdmans,1999-2003), p. 183
  4. ^ "The word baptism is a transliteration of the Greek word baptizo which means to plunge, to dip, or to immerse. … In New Testament times baptism was by a single immersion, with triple immersions appearing only later; occasionally, in cases of sickness or lack of water, affusion was practiced" – Myers, A. C., The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Eerdmans 1987), p. 123
  5. ^ "Some form of immersion is envisaged, although affusion is allowed if running or standing water is lacking: 'If you do not have either, pour water three times on the head'." – Martin, R. P., & Davids, P. H. (2000). Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments (electronic ed.).
  6. ^ "Immersion, Baptism by (BAP-tih-zuhm bai ih-MER-shuhn): A method of baptizing whereby the whole person is submerged in water three times while the Trinitarian formula is pronounced. In the Rite of Baptism, immersion is indicated as the first way to baptize. For immersion, the candidate steps down or into a pool of water at waist height." – Stravinskas, Catholic Dictionary (Our Sunday Visitor 1993, 2002), p. 402
  7. ^ ""While much debate has focused on the varying interpretations of the forms of baptism, each form (immersion, sprinkling, or pouring) is clearly associated with the concept of cleansing and identification, which are the two integral parts of Spirit baptism. Immersion, however, depicts more clearly the symbolic aspect of baptism since its three steps—immersion (going into the water), submersion (going under the water), and emersion (coming out of the water)—more closely parallel the concept of entering into the death of Christ, experiencing the forgiveness of sins, and rising to walk in the newness of Christ’s resurrected life (Rom 6:4)." – Douglas, & Tenney (eds.), New International Bible Dictionary (Zondervan 1987), p. 124
  8. ^ "According to the rules of by far the largest portion of the Christian Church the water may be used in any one of three ways: immersion, where the recipient enters bodily into the water, and where, during the action, the head is plunged either once or three times beneath the surface; affusion, where water is poured upon the head of the recipient who stands either in water or on dry ground; and aspersion, where water is sprinkled on the head or on the face.
    1. Immersion It has frequently been argued that the word baptízein invariably means 'to dip' or 'immerse' and that therefore Christian baptism must have been performed originally by immersion only, and that the other two forms, infusion and aspersion, are invalid – that there can be no real baptism unless the method of immersion be used. But the word that invariably means 'to dip' is not baptízein but báptein; baptízein has a wider signification; and its use to denote the Jewish ceremonial of pouring water on the hands (Lk. 11:38; Mk. 7:4), as has already been said, shows that it is impossible to conclude from the word itself that immersion is the only valid method of performing the rite. ... When immersion was used the head of the recipient was plunged thrice beneath the surface at the mention of each name of the trinity; when the mode was by affusion the same reference to the trinity was kept by pouring water thrice upon the head. The two usages that were recognized and prescribed by the beginning of the 2nd cent. may have been in use throughout the apostolic period, although definitive information is lacking." T.M. Lindsay, Baptism. Reformed View, in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  9. ^ 'One of their strongest arguments revolves around the Greek word for baptism in the New Testament. Its predominant meaning is “to immerse” or “to dip,” implying that the candidate was plunged beneath the water.', Youngblood, R. F., Bruce, F. F., Harrison, R. K., & Thomas Nelson Publishers. (1995). Nelson's new illustrated Bible dictionary
  10. ^ "There are four principal methods of baptizing: (1) submersion (or total immersion) ; (2) immersion, when the head is dipped with or without the candidate standing in the water; (3) affusion, when water is poured over the head and (4) …" (John Gordon Davies, The Architectural Setting of Baptism. Barrie and Rockliff 1962. p. 23).
  11. ^ "The four principal modes are: 1. Submersion; or total immersion, where the candidate goes briefly but entirely below the water, on the model of those baptised by John in the River Jordan; 2. Immersion; where the head, as the prime seat of Man's rational and spiritual being, is in some way submerged, with or without the candidate having to stand in the same container of water; 3. Affusion; …" (Charles Thomas, Christianity in Roman Britain to A.D. 500. University of California Press 1981 ISBN 0-520-04392-8. p, 204
  12. ^ "In the early Church baptism was by one of four methods: complete submersion of the entire body, immersion of the head, affusion or pouring, or aspersion or sprinkling" (Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion. Ignatius Press 1998 ISBN 0-89870-631-9. p. 113).
  13. ^ "There have been four different modes of conferring baptism throughout history: (1) submersion, also called dipping, in which the candidate is completely submerged under the baptismal waters; (2) immersion, in which the candidate stands or kneels in rather shallow water, and the water is either poured over the head of the candidate or the candidate's head itself is pushed partially into the water; (3) affusion, in which water is poured over the head of the candidate; and (4) aspersion …" (S. Anita Stauffer, On Baptismal Fonts: Ancient and Modern. Grove Books 1994, pp. 9-10).
  14. ^ "In the early centuries baptism was usually by immersion. However, this need not have meant full submersion in the water. Early Christian mosaics portray persons kneeling or standing in the baptismal pool with water being poured over them" (Peter C. Bower, 'The Companion to the Book of Common Worship. Geneva Press 2003 ISBN 0-664-50232-6, p. 163).
  15. ^ a b "A method of Baptism, employed at least from the 2nd cent., whereby part of the candidate's body was submerged in the baptismal water which was poured over the remainder. The rite is still found in the E. Church. In the W. it began to be replaced from c. the 8th cent. By the method of affusion, though its use was still being encouraged in the 16th cent., as it still is in the Anglican and RC Churches" (Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3, art. immersion).
  16. ^ "Immersion (Latin – past participle of immergere = immersum) A method of baptism whereby part of the candidate's body is submerged, whilst the baptismal water is poured over the remainder. To be distinguished from submersion or total immersion" (Tony Meakin, A Basic Church Dictionary. Canterbury Press 2001 ISBN 1-85311-420-0, p. 18).
  17. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary
  18. ^ "im•mer•sion \i-ˈmər-zhən, -shən\ noun - 15th century : the act of immersing or the state of being immersed: as a : baptism by complete submersion of the person in water; b: ...", Merriam-Webster, I. (2003). Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary. (Eleventh ed.)
  19. ^ "Baptism by immersing a person bodily (but not necessarily completely) in water" (Oxford Dictionaries).
  20. ^ "A form of baptism in which part or the whole of a person's body is submerged in the water" (World English Dictionary).
  21. ^ 'In Gk. lit. gener. to put or go under water in a variety of senses, also fig., e.g. ‘soak’ Pla., Symp. 176b in wine) in our lit. only in ritual or ceremonial sense (as Plut.; Herm. Wr. [s. 2a below]; PGM 4, 44; 7, 441 λουσάμενος κ. βαπτισάμενος; 4 Km 5:14; Sir 34:25; Jdth 12:7; cp. Iren. 1, 21, 3 [Harv. I 183, 83]).', Arndt, W., Danker, F. W., & Bauer, W. (2000). A Greek-English lexicon of the New Testament and other early Christian literature (3rd ed.) (164)
  22. ^ 'The intens. [βαπτίζω occurs in the sense of “to immerse” (trans.) from the time of Hippocrates, in Plato and esp. in later writers, a. strictly, act. βαπτίζειν τὸ σκάφος, “to sink the ship,” Jos. Bell., 3, 368, ὁ κλύδων (τὰς ναῦς) ἐβάπτιζεν, Bell., 3, 423; pass. “to sink”: ἐν ὕλῃ (in the mud), Plot. Enn., I, 8, 13 (I, p. 112, 6, Volkmann; → 532)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964- (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.), volume 1 (530)
  23. ^ 'βαπτίζω, dip, plunge, ξίφος εἰς σφαγήν J.BJ2.18.4; σπάθιον εἰς τὸ ἔμβρυον Sor.2.63', Liddell, H. G., Scott, R., Jones, H. S., & McKenzie, R. (1996). A Greek-English lexicon (Rev. and augm. throughout) (305)
  24. ^ 'βαπτίζω fut. βαπτίσω; 1aor. ἐβάπτισα, mid. ἐβαπτισάμην; pf. pass. ptc. βεβαπτισμένος; 1aor. pass. ἐβαπτίσθην; 1fut. pass. βαπτισθήσομαι; strictly dip, immerse in water;', Friberg, T., Friberg, B., & Miller, N. F. (2000). Vol. 4: Analytical lexicon of the Greek New Testament. Baker's Greek New Testament library (87)
  25. ^ 'βαπτίζω baptízō; fut. baptísō, from báptō (911), to dip. Immerse, submerge for a religious purpose, to overwhelm, saturate, baptize (John 1:25).', Zodhiates, S. (2000). The complete word study dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.)
  26. ^ '; βαπτίζω G970 (baptizō), dip, immerse, submerge, baptize;', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144)
  27. ^ 'Despite assertions to the contrary, it seems that baptizō, both in Jewish and Christian contexts, normally meant “immerse”, and that even when it became a technical term for baptism, the thought of immersion remains.', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144)
  28. ^ 'Βάπτω dip, immerse.', Balz, H. R., & Schneider, G. (1990-). Vol. 1: Exegetical dictionary of the New Testament (196).
  29. ^ 'In the Sept.: 2 Kgs. 5:13, 14 we have loúō (3068), to bathe and baptízomai. See also Lev. 11:25, 28, 40, where plúnō (4150), to wash clothes by dipping, and loúō (3068), to bathe are used. In Num. 19:18, 19, báphō, to dip, and plúnō, to wash by dipping are used', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  30. ^ 'In the LXX βάπτειν (βαπτίζειν occurs only at 4 Βασ. 5:14) as a rendering of טָבַל, “to dip,” is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ru. 2:14, of feet in the river at Jos. 3:15, of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc., of the dipping of unsanctified vessels in water in the laws of purification at Lv. 11:32 (בא hiph)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  31. ^ 'Ex 12,22; Lv 4,6.17; 9,9; 11,32 to immerse sth in sth [פי וἴע פי] Lv 9,9; id. [פי ἔם פיםי] Dt 33,24; id. [פי ἀנ פיםןע] Ex 12,22; to plunge or to dip sb in sth [פיםב ἔם פיםי] Jb 9,31', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart.
  32. ^ גבנפזש+ V 0-1-1-0-2=4 2 Kgs 5,14; Is 21,4; Jdt 12,7; Sir 34,25 M to dip oneself 2 Kgs 5,14; to wash Jdt 12,7', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition
  33. ^ '[966] גבנפזש baptizō 77x pr. to dip, immerse; to cleanse or purify by washing; to administer the rite of baptism, to baptize;', Mounce, W. D. (2006). Mounce's complete expository dictionary of Old & New Testament words (1104–1105)
  34. ^ 1. In the LXX baptō usually translates the OT Heb. ṭāḇal, dip (13 times; on 3 occasions baptō represents other vbs.). baptizō occurs only 4 times: in Isa. 21:4 it is used metaphorically of destruction, but in 2 Ki. 5:14 it is used in the mid. of Naaman’s sevenfold immersion in the Jordan (the only passages as equivalent for Heb. ṭāḇal).', Brown, C. (1986). Vol. 1: New international dictionary of New Testament theology (144).
  35. ^ 'When immersion was used the head of the recipient was plunged thrice beneath the surface at the mention of each name of the trinity; when the mode was by affusion the same reference to the trinity was kept by pouring water thrice upon the head.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  36. ^ 'the pictorial representations, almost without exception, display baptism performed by affusion, i.e., the recipient is seen standing in water while the minister pours water on the head.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  37. ^ 'During the great baptismal scene in the marketplace of the city of Mnster the ordinance was performed by the ministers pouring three cans of water on the heads of the recipients. They baptized by affusion and not by immersion.', Lindsay, 'Baptism', in Bromiley (ed.) 'The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Revised', volume 1, page 419 (1988; 2002)
  38. ^ 'Some form of immersion is envisaged, although affusion is allowed if running or standing water is lacking: “If you do not have either, pour water three times on the head.”', Martin, R. P., & Davids, P. H. (2000). Dictionary of the later New Testament and its developments (electronic ed.).
  39. ^ 'The "pouring on of water" ("affusion"), which is mentioned as early as the Didache, was another early form of baptism.', Jeffrey, 'A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature', page 75 (1992)
  40. ^ 'One of their strongest arguments revolves around the Greek word for baptism in the New Testament. Its predominant meaning is “to immerse” or “to dip,” implying that the candidate was plunged beneath the water.', Youngblood, R. F., Bruce, F. F., Harrison, R. K., & Thomas Nelson Publishers. (1995). Nelson's new illustrated Bible dictionary
  41. ^ 'The Gk verb for “baptize,” baptizein, is formed from baptein, “dip,” and means “dip frequently or intensively, plunge, immerse.”', Freedman, D. N. (1996). Vol. 1: The Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary (583)
  42. ^ Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:529-530). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  43. ^ 'In the Sept.: 2 Kgs. 5:13, 14 we have loתפ (3068), to bathe and baptםzomai. See also Lev. 11:25, 28, 40, where plתnפ (4150), to wash clothes by dipping, and loתפ (3068), to bathe are used. In Num. 19:18, 19, bבphפ, to dip, and plתnפ, to wash by dipping are used', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G908). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  44. ^ 'In the LXX גנפוים (גבנפזוים occurs only at 4 ֲבף. 5:14) as a rendering of טָבַל, “to dip,” is used for the dipping of the morsel in wine at Ru. 2:14, of feet in the river at Jos. 3:15, of the finger in blood in the Torah of sacrifices at Lv. 4:6, 17 etc., of the dipping of unsanctified vessels in water in the laws of purification at Lv. 11:32 (בא hiph)', Theological dictionary of the New Testament. 1964-c1976. Vols. 5-9 edited by Gerhard Friedrich. Vol. 10 compiled by Ronald Pitkin. (G. Kittel, G. W. Bromiley & G. Friedrich, Ed.) (electronic ed.) (1:535). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
  45. ^ 'Ex 12,22; Lv 4,6.17; 9,9; 11,32 to immerse sth in sth [פי וἴע פי] Lv 9,9; id. [פי ἔם פיםי] Dt 33,24; id. [פי ἀנ פיםןע] Ex 12,22; to plunge or to dip sb in sth [פיםב ἔם פיםי] Jb 9,31', Lust, J., Eynikel, E., & Hauspie, K. (2003). A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint : Revised Edition. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft: Stuttgart.
  46. ^ 'In Mark 7:3, the phrase “wash their hands” is the translation of nםptפ (3538), to wash part of the body such as the hands. In Mark 7:4 the verb wash in “except they wash” is baptםzomai, to immerse. This indicates that the washing of the hands was done by immersing them in collected water. See Luke 11:38 which refers to washing one’s hands before the meal, with the use of baptםzomai, to have the hands baptized.', Zodhiates, S. (2000, c1992, c1993). The Complete Word Study Dictionary : New Testament (electronic ed.) (G907). Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers.
  47. ^ John Piper, Sermon on May 25, 1997, "What Baptism Portrays"
  48. ^ R. T. France, 'The Gospel of Matthew', 2007), p. 109
  49. ^ David Noel Freeman (editor), Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible (Eerdmans 2000), p. 148
  50. ^ Howard Marshall, "The Meaning of the Verb "Baptize", in Porter, Cross (editors), Dimensions of Baptism: Biblical and Theological Studies (Sheffield Academic Press 2002 ISBN 0-8264-6203-0), pp. 21-22.
  51. ^ William Shishko, "Is Immersion Necessary for Baptism" in IIIM Magazine Online. Volume 4, Number 28, July 17 to July 24, 2002, p. 5
  52. ^ Online Parallel Bible
  53. ^ "To restate what is absolutely clear, we know the Bible prescribes for baptism to be with water in the name of the Holy Trinity. The Church is to baptize, and Christians are to be baptized. Not so certain is the mode or manner" (David A. Banks, The Church and Baptism - Modes and Symbolism).
  54. ^ David A. Banks, The Church and Baptism - Modes and Symbolism"it is not self-evident that what is described is definitively prescribed."
  55. ^ a b Funk, Robert Walter (1993). "Stages in the Development of Early Christian Tradition". The Five Gospels: The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus : New Translation and Commentary. New York City: Macmillan Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 0-02-541949-8. OCLC 28421734. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  56. ^ Didache, 7, translation by Cyril C. Richardson
  57. ^ A more literal translation is: "Now concerning baptism, baptize thus: Having first taught all these things, baptize ye into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. And if thou hast not living water, baptize into other water; and if thou canst not in cold, then in warm (water). But if thou hast neither, pour [water] thrice upon the head in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. But before Baptism let the baptizer and the baptized fast, and any others who can; but thou shalt command the baptized to fast for one or two days before" (Philip Schaff's translation). Other translations are given at Early Christian Writings.
  58. ^ "The Didache does not say, however, whether immersion or pouring was recommended when using running water" (James V. Brownson, The Promise of Baptism (Eerdmans 2007 ISBN 978-0-8028-3307-5), pp. 74-75
  59. ^ "We constantly see representations of the celebration of baptism on monuments the Gospel scene of the baptism of our Lord, or even ordinary baptisms. But do we ever see total immersion, the neophyte plunged into the water so as to disappear completely? Such a thing is never seen. This immersion, which is the Greek form, is never to be met with, either in the mosaics of ancient churches, or in the paintings of the Catacombs, nor in ordinary pictures or domestic objects, glasses, spoons, &c, nor sculptured, nor engraved on marble. In all such ancient monuments the neophyte appears standing, his feet in the water, but the greater part of his body out of the water, while water is poured on his head with the hand or with a vase." – pp. 62-63
  60. ^ "We may add that all the pictorial and the archaeological evidence regarding the mode of baptism has been gathered by Clement F. Rogers, M.A., Baptism and Christian Archaeology, Oxford, Clarendon Press. This man approached his investigation with the conviction that immersion was the primitive and original mode. He found the exact contrary to be true. The most ancient tracings and carvings portray the act of baptism as being carried out by pouring. In this way John baptized Jesus, and in this way other baptisms were administered. All the fonts found in ruins and in excavations are shallow, a few steps down. In some of these immersion could not have been possible, but only by laying the person down flat in the font, and then he dare not have been very corpulent. The mass of evidence invalidates the assumption, so often met with, that immersion was the mode of baptism in the early church. – "[http://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks%3A1&tbo=1&q=%22conviction+that+immersion+was+the+primitive+and+original%22&btnG=Search+Books R.C.H. Lenski, Interpretation of the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Publishing House 1944, 2008 ISBN 978-0-8066-8075-0), pp. 113-114
  61. ^ "Stenzel's introduction identifies his interest as liturgy, not theology or parallels from the history of religions, and primarily the Latin development leading to the medieval Roman liturgy", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 5
  62. ^ "Stenzel is of the opinion that both immersion and affusion were practised. He bases his opinion on archaeological findings which show a lack of depth in baptismal 'pools' ('piscinae'), making a total immersion of an adult impossible. Pictorial representations which reflect baptismal procedures of the time strengthen his opinion: 'The person being baptized stands in water which reaches only half way up his body and water is poured from above. If the flow of water is sufficient then he is wholly covered at least for an instant with water and so 'buried', 'immersed', as the Fathers say" – Michael Kunzler, The Liturgy of the Church (LIT Verlag 2001 ISBN 3-8258-4854-X), p. 262.
  63. ^ "Among the ruins of early Christian structures, and also in ancient churches still in use, the history of Christian baptism can be traced. Paintings in catacombs and churches, mosaics on floors, walls, and ceilings, sculptured reliefs, and drawings in ancient New Testament manuscripts add details to this history, as well as raising interesting questions that need further investigation. The record left by these various witnesses overwhelmingly testifies to immersion as the normal mode of baptism in the Christian church during the first ten to fourteen centuries. This is in addition to the evidence found throughout the writings of the church fathers that immersion was the early church’s common mode of baptism."
  64. ^ This fresco, showing the baptism of Christ, who stands waist-deep in water is attributed to the 9th or 10th century, but Rogers (pp. 289-290) thinks it more probably dates from the 6th. It is illustrated also in Cote, p. 32.
  65. ^ "One such baptistry in the catacomb of San Ponziano is four and a half feet long, three and a half feet wide, and three and a half feet deep. A channel diverted water from a nearby stream to fill this font. Wolfred Cote believes it was in use from the first to the fourth century. Neophytes either stood or knelt in the water and were immersed by 'bending forward under the hand of the administrator'"
  66. ^ "The font of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran is an excellent example. The original font is below floor level, twenty-five feet in diameter and three feet deep. Lined and paved with marble, it was once used for adult immersion. Falling into disuse, it was filled in and a bath for infant baptism was erected in its place. This, in turn, was no longer used, and a smaller font was placed above it for the pouring of children.", Rice, 'Baptism in the Early Church', Bible and Spade (1981), 10.2.125
  67. ^ "Yet it is of interest to note that directly below this dome is a font for immersion that has been subsequently altered for sprinkling! This fact would tend to place a question on Brown’s date for the mosaic, especially since it appears over a baptistry that is inside a church. Baptistries were only beginning to be moved into churches in the sixth century."
  68. ^ "Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion. Tinguere, mergere, and submergere seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized." (Actes du Congrès International d'Archéologie Chrétienne Lyon, Vienne, Grenoble, Genève et Aoste, 21-28 septembre 1986 (Vatican, 1989), Vol. 2, pp. 1451-68 (1455, 1457, 1459, 1462-63; as reported in Ferguson, p. 852
  69. ^ "The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva’ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian baptism", Sanford La Sor, 'Discovering What Jewish Miqva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism', Biblical Archaeology Review, (1987), 13.01
  70. ^ Die Taufe in der orthodoxen Kirche: Geschichte, Spendung und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Väter (Trier, Paulinus, 1987), pp. 101-102, as reported in Ferguson, Baptism in the Early Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries, p. 860
  71. ^ Renate Pillinger, "The Significance of Early Christian Monuments for the Study of Liturgy: The Example of Baptism" in Studia liturgica 25 (1995): 32-50, reported in Ferguson, p. 858).
  72. ^ "Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise [sic] his head without losing his balance. Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30 m to 60 cm deep ... Under 60 cm by depth the fonts were probably used for child baptism only" (quoted in Ferguson, p. 852).
  73. ^ Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7
  74. ^ "The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries. ... The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.", Ferguson, pp. 857-858
  75. ^ "Claiming that the literature and the church orders represent the ideal and archaeology the average, Rogers examines the artistic representations in various media and baptismal fonts. His work is now quite dated ,especially in dates assigned to the items examined, is replaced by later, more complete knowledge, and includes many items later than the period of my study" (p. 858).
  76. ^ "The progressive reduction in size from an exterior diameter of nearly 3 meters and interior diameter of over 2.40 meters to an interior dimension of 1.80 meters may reflected increased use of affusion or the decline of adult baptism" (p. 870).
  77. ^ "At Noli in Liguria beneath the Romanesque church of San Paragorio there is a fifth-century font, octagonal on the exterior and a circle on the interior with a diameter of 1.26 meters and a depth of about 1.60 meters. It shows successive reduction in size"(p. 837).
  78. ^ "A late baptistery may be noted for its indication of changes prompted by the general practice of infant baptism"(p. 838).
  79. ^ James L. Houlden, Jesus in History, Thought, and Culture: Entries A - J., Volume 1 (2003), p. 123
  80. ^ Maxwell E. Johnson, The Rites of Christian Initiation: Their Evolution and Interpretation (Liturgical Press 2007 ISBN 978-0-8146-6215-1), p. 34
  81. ^ Howard Marshall, "The Meaning of the Verb "Baptize", in Porter, Cross (editors), Dimensions of Baptism: Biblical and Theological Studies (Sheffield Academic Press 2002 ISBN 0-8264-6203-0), p. 18).
  82. ^ Dimensions of Baptism (2002), p. 2
  83. ^ Laurie Guy, Introducing Early Christianity: A Topical Survey of Its Life, Beliefs, and Practices (2004), pp. 224-225
  84. ^ in Wardrop, Lake, Gwilliam, Rogers (editors), Studies in Biblical and Patristic Criticism
  85. ^ The Oldest Church Manual Called the Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, pp. 36-41
  86. ^ Wolfred Cote, The Archaeology of Baptism, pp. 32 ff.
  87. ^ "The philological evidence is technical and inconclusive. But the archaeological and Mishnaic evidence seems to support the argument for immersion. That is clearly what occurred in the contemporaneous Jewish miqva’ot, so that is probably what happened in early Jewish Christian baptism", Sanford La Sor, 'Discovering What Jewish Miqva’ot Can Tell Us About Christian Baptism', Biblical Archaeology Review, (1987), 13.01
  88. ^ Die Taufe in der orthdoxen Kirche: Geschicte, Spendung, und Symbolik nach der Lehre der Vater (Trier, Paulinus, 1987), pp. 101-102
  89. ^ "The conclusions of Lothar Heiser on the administration of baptism after examining the literary and pictorial evidence accord with mine: the water customarily reached the hips of the baptizand; after calling on the triune God, the priest bent the baptizand under so as to dip him in water over the head; in the cases of pouring in the Didache and in sickbed baptism the baptized did not stand in the font.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 860
  90. ^ Actes du Xie Congres International d'Archeologie Chretienne, Lyone, Vienne, Grenoble, Geneve et Aoste, 21-28 septembre 1986 (Vatican, 1989), Vol. 2, pp. 1451-68 (1455, 1457, 1459, 1462-63)
  91. ^ "Jean-Charles Picard, working with the literary texts but correlating them with archaeological sources for southern France and northern Italy, concludes that the authors who furnish details of the baptismal rite speak only of immersion. Tinguere, merreger, and submergere seem to imply a total immersion, and he notes that there is no ancient representation where the celebrant pours water on the head of the baptized.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852
  92. ^ ""Consequently I have come to the conclusion that an adult of average height should have adapted himself, helped by the priest, to the dimensions of the font and to its internal design by taking an appropriate position which would have enabled him to dip and rise [sic] his head without losing his balance. Either bending his knees, kneeling, or sitting, an adult could have been totally immersed as required in fonts from 1.30m to 60cm deep."", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 852
  93. ^ "The Christian literary sources, backed by secular word usage and Jewish religious immersions, give an overwhelming support for full immersion as the normal action. Exceptions in cases of lack of water and especially of sickbed baptism were made. Submersion was undoubtedly the case for the fourth and fifth centuries in the Greek East, and only slightly less certain for the Latin West.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), p. 891
  94. ^ "The express statements in the literary sources, supported by other hints, the depictions in art, and the very presence of specially built baptismal fonts, along with their size and shape, indicate that the normal procedure was for the administrator with his head on the baptizand's head to bend the upper part of the body forward and dip the head under the water.", Ferguson, Baptism in the early church: history, theology, and liturgy in the first five centuries (Eerdmans 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-2748-7), pp. 857-858
  95. ^ John Piper. "1689 Baptist Catechism". Retrieved 3 February 2010.
  96. ^ The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, art. Baptism
  97. ^ The Key of Truth, a Manual of the Paulician Church of Armenia (reproduction 2009 ISBN 978-1-110-36174-8), p. 97
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