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Allan Paivio

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Allan Paivio

Paivio received his masters and Ph. D from McGill University and worked with Dr. Wallace Labert on bilingual processing during his graduate studies. As part of his graduate work Paivio worked with Lambert and conducted a study which examined recall by looking at the differences between the adjective-noun order and the noun-adjective order as indicators. Paivio and Lambert found evidence supporting nouns and modifying adjectives being learned more easily when the adjectives are listed ahead of the nouns rather than after them. In 1963, Paivio investigated whether learning adjective-nouns pairs is effected by the degree a noun is abstract. Previous literature had shown that physical nouns are more meaningful and easier to remember then abstract nouns or adjectives. The study by Paivio gave further evidence that concrete nouns can be more easily learned then abstract nouns. The study also confirmed that noun-adjective pairs were more easily learned in the noun-adjective order because nouns can only provoke a few different adjectives and the adjectives of the same pairs can elicit many alternate nouns. Therefore, the noun-adjective order and easier to remember and learn. Paivio conducted experiments on the role of imagery in associative learning, which led to his discovery of dual coding theory (DCT). In 1967 the theory was first addressed to the Canadian Psychological Association and was presented more in depth in reviews in 1969 and 1971. In 1991, Paivio assessed the previous and current status of his dual coding theory. He also addresses criticisms and alternate views on the theory. There is evidence supporting that high-imagery nouns are recalled significantly better than low-imagery nouns. In a study by Paivio and Begg it was found that this result could not be accounted for by differential interference attributable to interitem semantic or associative readiness. The effect of the concreteness of imagery on short term memory was suggested to be a positive effect accredited to imagery. Allan Paivio is most well-known for his Dual Coding Theory (DCT) which gives empirical evidence of the mental processes that underlie human behaviour and experience. DCT illustrates psychological events as a result of nonverbal mental systems that are dedicated to the processing of imagery and verbal mental systems are focused on linguistic information. The verbal system contains word-like codes that are random symbols that represent tangible objects and events, as well as abstract ideas. Nonverbal representations are analogous or perceptually similar to the events that they denote instead of unsystematic symbols. Referential connections are the links between the nonverbal and verbal mental systems and they connect the verbal and imaginal codes. Representations within the verbal and nonverbal systems are connected through associative connections. The imagery value of material being learned is important for imagery processing. Concreteness reflects the strength of word-to-image referential connections and therefore. Therefore, words that are more concrete are most likely to have a corresponding image and more likely to be remembered in recall. Paivo also found evidence that multiple units of information can be combined quickly into synchronously-organized, integrated visual compounds that function as units in memory storage. This allows for a more efficient way of retrieving memories. In a study, Paivio found that words could not be integrated into memory in the same way as visual components. Words have sequential constraints and therefore take up more storage pace. Two ideas of the theory were that image code was more available for pictures and verbal code was more available for words. Sequential processing was specialized by the verbal system and parallel processing was specialized by the image system. In 1981, Paivio’s students and associates gathered for a conference and to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the publication of Imagery and Verbal Process, which was published in 1971. The conference laid the foundation for the book, Imagery, Memory and Cognition. The first two chapters focus on individual differences in imagery, such as sex differences. The third and fourth chapters focus on memory and fifth and six focus on decision making. Colin MacLeod wrote a review of Imagery, Memory and Cognition in which he argues that the book makes minimal progress in further developing dual coding theory. In the ten chapters, all except for three reports on new experiments that are not published somewhere else. Therefore, there is not sufficient evidence that the findings are supported. MacLeod was also disappointed with Paivio’s last chapters of the book. Paivio only evaluated three classes of negative evaluation in which he was quick to reject them. MacLeaod had an overall negative review of the book and concluded that little theoretical development had taken place in the last ten years.

The book of Imagery and Verbal Process consists not only of findings of Paivio, but also poses questions to be answered in the future. The first three chapters are theoretical, the fourth chapter and chapters there after discuss a variety of perceptual, learning and verbal outcomes that pertain to the general theory. In 1996, Johnson, Paivio and Clark reviewed the three stages of object identification, name activation and response generation in regards to naming pictured objects. An object must first be acknowledged as being an affiliate of a certain object classification. The name then must be activated. A specific response must then be prepared and completed by articulatory commands. Several methods, such as naming experiments, are used to determine which stages are affected by item, task or participant variables. The multiple stages of naming can be affected by practice and context manipulations. Practise can increase the speed of naming item specific facilitation. Dual-coding theory differs from other models of naming in that it proposes that long-term images tend to conform to a general pattern. In a study, Kounios and Holcomb found evidence supporting the consistency of dual coding theory over context availability theory, which states that concreteness effects result from processing differences in a single system. Paivio argued that the verbal and nonverbal systems both process concrete systems. Abstract words are processes mainly by the verbal system. The occurrence of both systems for concrete words is thought to increase the learning of these items. Studies by Bleasdale and Chiarello, Senehi, and Nuding in 1987 both on different reasons behind dual-coding theory and concreteness effects. The studies were both consistent with dual-coding theory. A study by Marschark and Paivio showed results that were inconsistent with dual coding theory. The study investigated picture word transfer effects and found that switching from pictures to words appeared to have a negative effect on reaction time and switching from words to pictures had a positive effect, which contracts dual processing theory. The study assessed whether abstract and concrete sentences can be processes in an integrated or holistic way. The results of all three studies provided evidence supporting that the processing of concrete and abstract sentences is holistic. The results showed that integrated mental representations are responsible for concrete and abstract processing, which contradicts dual processing theory. The first two studies showed inferences derived from the meaningful organization of information on the basis of investigation of context and knowledge of language and the world. There were ways in which concrete and abstract conditions different in ways that are consistent with dual-coding theory, including concrete sentences leading to a higher recall rate. A bilingual version of dual coding theory was studied in 1988, and the results supported dual coding theory and the independence store hypothesis of bilingual memory.

Thompson and Paivio examined the mnemonic independence of auditory and visual nonverbal stimuli in free recall. Recall in the picture-sound condition was greater than with just picture or just sound. Paivio and Csapo examined the superiority of recall with pictures and the effects of organization and elaboration. Paivio wrote the book Mind and Its Revolution: A Dual Coding Theoretical Approach, which was published in 2009 and covers recent developments in Dual Coding Theory. Several chapters also describe how the mind is an outcome of evolutionary processes using dual coding theory. Paivio and Sadoski conducted a study in 2011 that assessed Elman’s theory in the role of mental lexicon in language processing and applied the prospective of Dual Processing Theory. They found evidence for some agreements and disagreements with aspects of Elman’s position.

References

Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210. doi:10.1007/BF01320076

Delprato, D. J. (2009). Review of mind and its evolution: A dual coding theoretical approach. The Psychological Record, 59(2), 295-300. Retrieved from https://www.lib.uwo.ca/cgi-bin/ezpauthn.cgi/docview/621928502?accountid=15115

Johnson, Carla J.; Paivio, Allan; Clark, James M, (1996). Cognitive components of picture naming. Psychological Bulletin, 120(1),113-139.

Kounios, J., & Holcomb, P. J. (1994). Concreteness effects in semantic processing: ERP evidence supporting dual-coding theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(4), 804-823. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.804

Lambert, W. E., & Paivio, A. (1956). The influence of noun-adjective order on learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 10(1), 9-12. doi:10.1037/h0083652

MacLeod, C. M. (1984). Imagery and dual coding theory: The first decade. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 38(3), 519-522. doi:10.1037/h0080882

Marschark, M., & Paivio, A. (1977). Integrative processing of concrete and abstract sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning & Verbal Behavior, 16(2), 217-231. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80048-0

Paivio, A. (1963). Learning of adjective-noun paired associates as a function of adjective-noun word order and noun abstractness. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 17(4), 370-379. doi:10.1037/h0083277

Paivio, <. c. (1975). Imagery and synchronic thinking. Canadian Psychological Review/Psychologie Canadienne, 16(3), 147-163. doi:10.1037/h0081801

Paivio, <. c. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie, 45(3), 255-287. doi:10.1037/h0084295

Paivio, <. c., & Begg, I. (1971). Imagery and associative overlap in short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology,89(1), 40-45. doi:10.1037/h0031193

Paivio, <. c., Clark, J. M., & Lambert, W. E. (1988). Bilingual dual-coding theory and semantic repetition effects on recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 14(1), 163-172. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.14.1.163

Paivio, <. c., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 176-206. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7

Paivio, <. c., & Sadoski, M. (2011). Lexicons, contexts, events, and images: Commentary on elman (2009) from the perspective of dual coding theory. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 35(1), 198-209. doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2010.01146.x

Runquist, W. N. (1973). Aspects of cognitive process: A review of imagery and verbal processes by allan paivio. Canadian Psychologist/Psychologie Canadienne, 14(3), 290-296. doi:10.1037/h0082228

Thompson, V. A., & Paivio, A. (1994). Memory for pictures and sounds: Independence of auditory and visual codes.Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology/Revue Canadienne De Psychologie Expérimentale, 48(3), 380-398. doi:10.1037/1196-1961.48.3.380