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Definition Of Job Attitude

Job Attitude is a set of evaluations of one’s job that express one’s feelings toward, beliefs about, and attachment to one’s job.[1] However, according to a study completed by Timothy A. Judge, and John D. Kanmeyer-Mueller, both department of management professors at the University of Notre Dame and the University of Florida respectively, the long history of research on job attitudes entails there is no commonly agreed upon definition.[2] The given definition embraces both the cognitive and affective aspects of these certain assessments while also acknowledging that these cognitive and affective components do not necessarily need to be in correspondence with each other. [3]Note that job attitude should not be confused with the definition of attitude. Attitude is defined as a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.[4] Although the definition of job attitudes is rather simple, there exist traces and complexities that underlie it. In the definition above, the term “job” involves one’s current position, one’s work or one’s occupation, and one’s employer. However, one’s attitude towards his/her work does not necessarily have to be equal with one’s attitudes towards his/her employer, and often these two factors often diverge. In contrast, job attitudes also equip a hierarchical structure with global attitudes as a composite of lower-order, more specific attitudes.[5] This hierarchical system is used to evaluate one’s advancement opportunities by observing one’s job, one’s occupation, or one’s employer. However, by portraying this structure throughout very distinct types of works, careers, and employers is extremely problematic. It is also highly possible for the structure of job attitudes to be the exact same. A job structure defines how employers compass and organize job fields, job families, job categories, and job levels within the workplace. For example, an associate professor at a highly renowned university, a cashier at McDonalds, and a stonemason may all have the same job structure.

Discrete Job Attitudes

There are many different kinds of job attitudes. The following describe job attitudes specifically.

Global Job Attitudes

Global job attitudes are attitudes which are developed towards a job through the organization, working environment, affective disposition, aggregate measures of job characteristics and the social environment. It entirely depends on the broad totality of work conditions. The most researched type of job attitude is overall job satisfaction. In fact, job attitudes are also closely associated to more global measures of life satisfaction. Scales such as "Faces" have made to interpret overall satisfaction with work. "Job in general" scale focus on the cognitive perspective (rather than applied) of the effects of job attitudes. Variety of attributes in a job help discover many levels of satisfaction within global job attitudes.[6]

Several other types of job attitudes include, job involvement, organizational commitment, perceived organizational support (POS), and employee engagement. Job Involvement is identifying with one's job and actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self worth. Organizational Commitment is identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization. Perceived Organizational Support is the degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their well-being. And lastly, Employee Engagement is an individual's involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the organization.[7]

Facets of Job Satisfaction

Job facet satisfaction refers to feelings about specific job aspects, such as salary, benefits, and the quality of relationships with one's co-workers.[8]Job satisfaction is the collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds towards his or her job. This can be the result of evaluating your employment in terms of its characteristics, some of which includes salary and benefits. The following are five major facets of job satisfaction.

  • Satisfaction with work: The emotional state of a worker while working is critical to its relationship with job attitudes. Even though a person identifies themselves as a person with a profession such as doctor, lawyer or engineer, it is their well being at work which is a significant aspect to the research of relationship with job attitude. Satisfaction with work can be analyzed by evaluation(I like or dislike my job), cognitively (my work is challenging) and behaviorally (I am reliable).[9]
  • Supervision: Supervision is highly relative to manage productivity. However, supervision can only be taken positively if one increases acceptance of each other. Therefore, it is important to ensure that positive attitude towards work is implemented.[10]
  • Co-workers: If a workplace is stressful, one common dissatisfaction is with co-workers. A finding has used role theory to see its relationship with job stress and discovered that the source of job stress can be co-workers.[11]
  • Pay and promotion: Under affective bases of commitment and organizational personality orientation, a positive reinforcement for work is known to be the compensation or a simple promotion. This is to show your importance in performance and loyalty towards job.[12]

The job attitude is the middle component in a belief-evaluation behaviour chain:

  1. 1) Beliefs about aspects of the job.
          "My work has long stretches with nothing to do."
  1. 2) The evaluative component, i.e., the attitude itself.
           "I am dissatisfied with my job."
  1. 3) Work-related behavioural intentions that follow from the attitude.
           "I'm intending to quit my job."

Actual Behaviour

The belief, attitude, and intention sequence is presumable followed by actual behaviour. For example, if I believe that my job is boring, and if my evaluation of my job is that it is unsatisfying, and I intend to quit, I may indeed actually leave my job. This traditional model suggests that behaviours (including job performance) are largely influenced by job attitudes. Recently, this traditional model has been questioned as being too simple and some more comprehensive alternatives have been developed.

Research on Job Attitude

The following are few of many researches done on job attitude in workplaces.

Emotional Exhaustion and Job Attitude

Research done by Fernando Jaramillo, Jay Prakash Mulki, and James S. Boles compared interpersonal conflict and work overload with role stress, emotional exhaustion, job attitude, working smart, job performance, and turnover intentions.[13] It should also be noted that companies whose workers have positive attitudes are more effective than whose workers do not.[14]

The study was conducted in South America within 500 Salespeople. The measurement of the variables interpersonal conflict and work overload with role stress, emotional exhaustion, job attitude, working smart, job performance, and turnover intentions were measured using Model standardized Factor Loadings, and Reliability Indices. A questionnaire was filled by participants and then the ratings were analyzed. This questionnaire was offered in both english and spanish.[15]

Sample from questionnaire

  • I help colleagues who have heavy workloads.
  • I willingly give of my time to help colleagues around me.
  • I am always willing to lend a helping hand to colleagues.

[16]

The research Hypothesis 5 is focused on Job Attitude

“Hypothesis 5: Emotional exhaustion and job attitude mediate the impact of stressors (role stress, work overload and interpersonal conflict) on salesperson’s behaviors (in-role performance, extra-role performance, and turnover intention).”[17]

Control Variables

The control variables were: Tenure, Age, Gender[18]


Factor Analysis

Factor Analysis was used by having various Scale Items with resulting factor loadings. The factor loadings’ correlation with the variables and factors resulted in data from questionnaires.[19]

Result

A conclusion was made that through emotional exhaustion, interpersonal conflict affect job attitudes. Being in sales is stressful. A Facing cut-throat competition within the company can lead to a bitter relationship with colleagues. This leads to emotional exhaustion. The salesperson gets dissatisfied with their job and eventually affect his or her job attitude. Therefore, it is concluded that through emotional exhaustion, interpersonal conflicts will negatively affect the job attitude of the salesperson.[20]

Contrary to most expert opinion, there is evidence that companies whose workers have positive attitudes are far more effective than whose workers do not.[21]

Personality and Job Attitude

A research done by Mark Smith and Jonathan Canger used the five factor model of personality to see if the personality of supervisors has an effect on the attitude of subordinate. The study proposes that job attitude of the subordinates such as job satisfaction and turnover intention will not influence the "satisfaction with the supervisor". However,the personality of the supervisor will have a stronger influence with the subordinate's "satisfaction with the supervisor". The study also proposes that personality traits, in particular agreeableness, extroversion and emotional stability of the supervisor is positively related to subordinate attitude.[22]

Procedure

In year 2001, 685 employees in the human capitol management company of USA were asked to fill up a personality inventory survey. This survey was done to get accurate personality measures such as:

  1. The big five personality: Emotional Stability, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness
  2. Job Satisfaction
  3. Effective Organizational Commitment
  4. Turnover Intention[23]

Analysis

For all of the testings done in this experiment, zero order correlations were found and were analyzed. Multiple Regression Analyses of Subordinate Attitudes on Supervisor Personality within variable as the five different personality were made. Furthermore, Correlations of Supervisor Personality Dimensions and Subordinate Attitudes were made.[24]

Results

It was concluded that the personality of the supervisor has a greater effect on subordinate satisfaction with supervision than the more general work-related attitudes.

  1. Supervisor agreeableness: positively related with satisfaction of employees with the supervisor.
  2. Extroversion: Negatively related to turnover intentions. So extroversion leads to lower turnover intentions.
  3. Emotional Stability: Positively related with supervision satisfaction. Supervisors with greater emotional stability have happier employees.[25]

The results show evidence of various personalities of a supervisor related to the job attitudes of the employees.[26]

Job Attitude and Cyber-loafing

A research was done to examine weather attitudes towards cyber loafing and other loafing behavior follows the actual behavior of cyber loafing. The researchers hypothesize that the employee job attitudes of job involvement and intrinsic involvement are related to cyber loafing. That there will be

  1. a negative relationship between job involvement and cyber loafing.
  2. a negative relationship between intrinsic involvement and cyber loafing.
  3. a positive relationship between the perceived cyberloafing of one’s co-workers and cyber loafing.
  4. a positive relationship between managerial support for internet usage and cyber loafing.
  5. a positive relationship between one’s non-internet loafing behaviors and cyber loafing.
  6. a positive relationship between favorable attitudes towards cyberloafing and cyber loafing.[27]

Control and Predictor Variables

The important variables in this study are the control variable and predictor variable. Control variable such as job tenure, organization tenure and internet were held constant to test the impact of the predictor variable. Furthermore, those who have better skills in using the internet will also use it to their advantage or can use it to cyber loaf.[28]

Predictor variables in this study were the ones who were dependent on the control variables. One of the important variable were attitude towards cyber loafing.Participants reported their level of agreement on a 5-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree with the following statement: ‘‘It seems to be okay to just surf the internet while at work’’.[29]

Results

Employees who have lower job involvement and intrinsic involvement are more likely to involve in cyber loafing behavior. Therefore, manager must create an environment that supports workers and motivates them to make an important contribution. Management should try to increase the commitment of workers. The research also revealed that perception of cyber loafing and the managerial support for internet usage are related to cyber loafing. Often some groups within a company create a norm of social loafing through the internet. The influence of co-workers who are engaging themselves in cyber loafing leads others to engage in cyber loafing behavior. Non - internet loafing behavior and its relationship with cyber loafing had limitations. Chit-chat between two different co workers can be a sign of productivity or it can be a sign of wasting time. So it is difficult to conclude if non - internet social loafing has a relationship with cyber loafing.[30]

Outcomes of Job Attitude

The following are some behavior most relevant to job attitude. These behaviors are most common at workplace and are related to productivity and better management.

Task Performance

According to a meta - analytic regression, job attitudes influences performance. A vigorous meta analysis was done which was repeated many times. A matrix of several regression analysis through MPlus 4.2 using criterion of subsequent attitude and performance. A range of studies were found and analyzed. Data aggregation was done and through constant testing, results showed that it is the job attitude that influences performance and not the performance influencing attitude. [31]

Withdrawal/Counterproductivity

The effects of job attitudes and turnover was analyzed using sample of 297 males working to maintain railroad. The hypothesis of this study is that employee turnover would be influenced by many job attitude variables. Hierarchical cluster analysis and path analysis was used on several variables of job attitudes and to remove variables which were not important, Hierarchical cluster analysis was used. The following was discovered: Identification with organization were directly related to turnover whereas group norm had an indirect relationship with turnover. The study strongly concluded that human relation variables and group norms are variables of job attitude that are directly related to turnover.[32]

References

  1. ^ Judge, Timothy A. (10 January 2012). "Job Attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology. 63 (1): 341–367. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100511. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Judge, Timothy A. (10 January 2012). "Job Attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology. 63 (1): 341–367. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100511. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Schleicher DJ, Watt JD, Greguras GJ. 2004. Reexamining the job satisfaction-performance relationship: the complexity of attitudes. J. Appl. Psychol. 89:165–77
  4. ^ Judge, Timothy A. (10 January 2012). "Job Attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology. 63 (1): 341–367. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100511. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Harrison DA, Newman DA, Roth PL. 2006. How important are job attitudes? Meta-analytic compar- isons of integrative behavioral outcomes and time sequences. Acad. Manage. J. 49:305–25
  6. ^ Judge, Timothy A. (10 January 2012). "Job Attitudes". Annual Review of Psychology. 63 (1): 341–367. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100511. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Reference: Steers, R.M. & Porter, L.W (Eds.) (1991). Motivation and Work behaviour. (5th Ed.). McGraw-Hill:NY.
  8. ^ FRANCIS REDMOND, BRIAN. "Job Satisfaction Overview".
  9. ^ FRANCIS REDMOND, BRIAN. "Job Satisfaction Overview".
  10. ^ M. Adjabeng, Senyo. "Employee Attitudes".
  11. ^ Beehr, T. A. (1 June 1981). "Work-Role Stress and Attitudes Toward Co-Workers". Group & Organization Management. 6 (2): 201–210. doi:10.1177/105960118100600206.
  12. ^ Tosi, Henry L. (2003). The fundamentals of organizational behavior : what managers need to know. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-4051-0074-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Reference: Steers, R.M. & Porter, L.W (Eds.) (1991). Motivation and Work behaviour. (5th Ed.). McGraw-Hill:NY.
  15. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Jaramillo, Fernando (NaN undefined NaN). "Workplace Stressors, Job Attitude, and Job Behaviors: Is Interpersonal Conflict the Missing Link?". Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management. 31 (3): 339–356. doi:10.2753/PSS0885-3134310310. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Reference: Steers, R.M. & Porter, L.W (Eds.) (1991). Motivation and Work behaviour. (5th Ed.). McGraw-Hill:NY.
  22. ^ Smith, Mark Alan (NaN undefined NaN). "Effects of Supervisor "Big Five" Personality on Subordinate Attitudes". Journal of Business and Psychology. 18 (4): 465–481. doi:10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028447.00089.12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ Smith, Mark Alan (NaN undefined NaN). "Effects of Supervisor "Big Five" Personality on Subordinate Attitudes". Journal of Business and Psychology. 18 (4): 465–481. doi:10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028447.00089.12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ Smith, Mark Alan (NaN undefined NaN). "Effects of Supervisor "Big Five" Personality on Subordinate Attitudes". Journal of Business and Psychology. 18 (4): 465–481. doi:10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028447.00089.12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Smith, Mark Alan (NaN undefined NaN). "Effects of Supervisor "Big Five" Personality on Subordinate Attitudes". Journal of Business and Psychology. 18 (4): 465–481. doi:10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028447.00089.12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ Smith, Mark Alan (NaN undefined NaN). "Effects of Supervisor "Big Five" Personality on Subordinate Attitudes". Journal of Business and Psychology. 18 (4): 465–481. doi:10.1023/B:JOBU.0000028447.00089.12. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Liberman, Benjamín (1 November 2011). "Employee job attitudes and organizational characteristics as predictors of cyberloafing". Computers in Human Behavior. 27 (6): 2192–2199. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Liberman, Benjamín (1 November 2011). "Employee job attitudes and organizational characteristics as predictors of cyberloafing". Computers in Human Behavior. 27 (6): 2192–2199. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ Liberman, Benjamín (1 November 2011). "Employee job attitudes and organizational characteristics as predictors of cyberloafing". Computers in Human Behavior. 27 (6): 2192–2199. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  30. ^ Liberman, Benjamín (1 November 2011). "Employee job attitudes and organizational characteristics as predictors of cyberloafing". Computers in Human Behavior. 27 (6): 2192–2199. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.06.015. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Riketta, Michael (1 January 2008). "The causal relation between job attitudes and performance: A meta-analysis of panel studies". Journal of Applied Psychology. 93 (2): 472–481. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.472.
  32. ^ FURUKAWA, HISATAKA (1 January 1976). "PREDICTING TURNOVER OF EMPLOYEES BY JOB ATTITUDE: COMBINED USE OF HIERARCHICAL CLUSTER AND PATH ANALYSIS". THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. 16 (1): 8–16. doi:10.2130/jjesp.16.8.
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