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Crocodile farm

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For the album, see Alligator Farm (album).
Saltwater crocodile farm in Australia
Aerial view of a Cambodian crocodile farm
Samutprakarn Crocodile Farm in Thailand

An alligator farm or crocodile farm is an establishment for breeding and raising of crocodilians in order to produce meat, leather, and other goods. Many species of both alligators and crocodiles are farmed internationally, and occasionally the term ranch is also used.

History

Though not truly domesticated, alligators and crocodiles have been bred in farms since at least the early 20th century. However, the vast majority of these early businesses were farms in name only; primarily keeping alligators and crocodiles as a tourist attraction.[1] The St. Augustine Alligator Farm Zoological Park, established in 1893, is a prime example of this early type of alligator farm. Only in the 1960s did commercial operations that either harvested eggs from the wild or bred alligators on-site begin to appear.[2] This was largely driven by diminishing stocks of wild alligators, which had been hunted nearly to extinction around this time.

As the American Alligator was placed under official protection in 1967 (under a law preceding the 1973 Endangered Species Act) farming alligators for skins became the most viable option for producing leather (aside from illegal poaching).[2] Mostly concentrated in the Southern U.S. states of Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia, the practice quickly spread to other nations. Both the American and Chinese Alligator are farmed intensively today, mostly within each species' respective native region. The Nile crocodile is found in ranches all over Africa, and the Saltwater crocodile is farmed in Australia and other areas. The smaller caimans are generally not of enough market value to farm, though some captive breeding of the spectacled caiman does take place in South America.

Farming alligators and crocodiles first grew out of the demand for skins,[3] which can fetch hundreds of dollars a piece. But alligator and crocodile meat, which was long a part of Southern cooking (especially Cajun cuisine)[4] and some Asian and African cuisines, began to be sold later and shipped around the world to markets unfamiliar with crocodilian meat. Chinese cuisine based on traditional Chinese medicine considers alligator meat to be a curative food for colds and cancer prevention, although there is no scientific evidence to support this.[5]

Effects

Alligator farming has far-reaching effects, not limited to pricing, on poaching. Alligator farming has not lead to an increase in poaching. A common misconception is that crocodilians are an easy source of revenue and not difficult to care for in captivity; however, few crocodilian businesses are successful in the developing world. To offset overhead costs and have a regular source of income, crocodilian facilities can add tourism; combining captive breeding with ranching and tourism may be the best overall approach for linking conservation of crocodiles with economic benefits to local communities and government.[6]


Alligator farming has minimal adverse effects on the environment,[7]but has two positive direct effects on alligator conservation. The first is by providing manufacturers with a steady supply of quality skins there is less incentive for them to resort to poached products (Hutton and Webb 2003). The second is the return of hatchlings back into the wild. The latter is a deliberate intervention created to link farming back to wild populations (Elsey and Kinler 2004).

Wild alligator conservation has also benefited indirectly from farming. Businesses engaging in ranching protect alligator habitats to take care of nesting sites to ensure a healthy population. Because there is an fiscal incentive to keep a healthy environment for breeding alligators, the animals are seen as an economic resource. This can also augment the government’s willingness to be involved in taking care of crocodilians and see monetary returns.

There has not been an increase in poaching due to laundering, when poached products enter the market by infiltrating an legal stream, as expected because of the conjecture that by making trade in wildlife parts legal, the stigma attached to buying illegal may fall(Fischer 2004). Tanneries and other businesses prefer legal products because of the quality and steady supply. [8]

Methods

Ranching, wild harvesting, and captive breeding are the three ways to obtain crocodilians recognized by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Crocodile Specialist Group (CSG). There are a number of options for housing captive crocodiles that can be adapted to suit the individual goals of any facility. Acres of lake and marsh habitat enclosed to house many animals, or as limited as small pens used for one or two individuals. Adult Crocodiles require a great amount of space due to their life span which can last up to 50 years. (Thorbjarnarson 1992). Regardless of the the type of enclosure that you decide to use it all depends on how effectively it can be cleaned on a regular basis with not disturbing the crocodiles and alligators.

Ranching involves collecting eggs or juveniles from the wild and rearing them to market size in grow out facilities. A certain percentage of the eggs or juveniles collected in ranching operations can then be returned to the wild at a size that should ensure a higher survival rate adults and young adults can also be harvested directly from the wid (Mazzotti 1987: Cox and rahman 1994). These methods would be considered “open cycle” since they are ultimately concerned with the health and viability of wild populations and habitat in order to maintain (Thorbjarnarson 1992; ox and Rahman1994)[9]

Concerns

Some concerns about alligator farming have been raised over the years, especially for the animals’ welfare, as well as possible impact it may have on the surrounding environments. The first major concern is for the alligators’ welfare on the farm, especially the threat of alligator/crocodile exclusive diseases. These diseases include caiman pox, adenoviral Hepatitis, Mycoplasmosis, and Chlamydiosis. Crocodiles are known to suffer greatly from stress, and the tight spaced captivity of the farms can cause outbreaks of these various illnesses. Most crocodiles like to keep a body temperature within 28 and 33 degrees Celsius. The crocs on the farms can get up to a dangerous 36 degrees Celsius which will lower the animals immune system, and put them at risk of various illnesses. The other concern is for the crocodiles water, and making sure its clean enough for them to swim in.

Environmental impact is also a key concern with animal farming. In Louisiana and Florida mosquitoes that carry the west Nile form of malaria have been found as a result of the crocodile and alligator farms. The other concern is damaging future generations of crocodiles/ alligator’s ecosystems outside of the farms. As of late the ecosystems outside of the farms have been strong but studies have shown that there is a possibility of decline in the coming years.

Complications

Many diseases and complications arise with alligator farming.

Pests

Many landowners across the United States are experiencing problems with property damage from Sus scrofa L. (Fera 1 Swine), which are expanding their range (ditchkofff and Mayer 2009, Mayer and Brisbin 2009).[10] Hogs also are capable of ruining crops and wildlife homes. In fact, the hogs are the ones spreading disease to wildlife, livestock and humans. In addition to the harmful effects on habitats, a major financial loss is due to the alligators eggs being eaten. Studies were done to assess nest losses and see if the hogs impacted the nests. There has been reports from farmers that efforts for hog removal has decreased feral swine damage. By doing these procedures, future losses may be lessened.

Disease

"Between 2001 and 2003, West Nile virus (WNV) infections and associated deaths were reported in captive American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) in Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, and Idaho (Miller et al. 2003, Jacobson et al. 2005, Nevarez et al. 2005). The result of WNV in alligators was a huge economic loss to alligator farming. There was a study done to find species composition and presence of WNV in mosquito populations that are connected with alligator farms in Louisiana. This study was also done to find the beginning of mosquito blood meals that were collected at commercial alligator farms ...The study strongly suggests that mosquitoes play an important role in WNV transmission for captive alligators, and efforts to control mosquitoes at commercial alligator farms may be beneficial in reducing WNV transmission".[11] Another study was done in Mexico to identify WNV infections. "Our data suggest a high seroprevalence (86%) for WNV in crocodiles in the crocodile farm in Ciudad del Carmen. However, the crocodiles had travel histories and may have been infected with WNV in the neighboring states of Yucatan or Tabasco. This means this disease is spreading so fast and could be damaging more habitats quickly." [12]

The skin is the most valuable by-product in crocodile farming, and it is critical that any diseases of the skin should be controlled and damage should be kept to a minimum. The existence of fungal infections in crocodile undersides is significant. Most disease problems stem from poor sanitation, low water temperatures, and poor diet, all of which can be easily corrected. [13]

For crocodile meat, there is a distinct possibility of contamination with salmonellae, depending on housing, feed, slaughter technique and hygiene practices under which the animal is reared. Chlamydial infections are common on some crocodile farms in southern Africa. Mycobacteriosis is extremely rare. Tapeworm cysts have been found in crocodile meat in two cases only. Trichinellosis has been reported on several crocodile farms in Zimbabwe. A generalised coccidiosis with invasion of organs and tissues has been seen in several species of crocodiles, but should present no danger to consumers. Crocodiles do have crocodile-specific diseases, and these vary from species to species. Crocodiles also can carry and transmit certain non-specific pathogens. [14]

Illnesses

  • Crocodile pox- caused by Parapoxvirus, crocodile pox infects hatchlings and juvenile crocs. It causes a brown residue to form around the eyes, oral cavity, and tail.
  • Caiman pox- Similar to crocodile pox caiman pox cause white lesions around the eyes, oral cavity, and tail.
  • Adenoviral Hepatitis -Causes organ failure, and has a high mortality rate
  • Mycoplasmosis- Causes polyarthritis and pneumonia in crocs under the age of 3. Affected animals have swollen jaws and can’t move.
  • Chlamydiosis – two forms that effect crocs under one year of age. The first causes acute hepatitis, which usually results in death. The other causes chronic bilateral conjunctivitis, which usually results in blindness. [15]

Other Diseases affecting Crocodilians include

  • Bacterial Agents- Salmonellae, Chlamydia, Mycobacteria
  • Parasitic agents- Tapeworm cysts, Trichinella spiralis nelsoni was found in the meat of slaughtered Nile crocodiles from eight crocodile farms in Zimbabwe, Coccidia

No growth hormones are used in crocodiles. On some farms, zinc bacitracin is used as a growth promoter. The most commonly used antibiotic is Oxytetracycline. No work on residue levels and withdrawal periods has been reported for these substances in crocodiles.

A crocodilian farm in Louisiana is featured in the 1973 James Bond film Live and Let Die. Tee Hee Johnson, one of the villain's henchman, attempts to feed James Bond to the alligators and crocodiles.

In the second season of The Amazing Race Australia, teams had to visit a Cuban alligator farm and feed a wheelbarrow full of chum to a pen of alligators along with capturing an alligator with a stick and rope in order to receive their next clue.

References

  1. ^ "Crocodiles and Alligator Farms". Americana-alligator.com.
  2. ^ a b Medley, Cynthia (January 18, 1970). "One Way to Halt Poaching-Gator Farming". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-02-08.
  3. ^ Lyman, Rick (November 30, 1998). 20th "Anahuac Journal; Alligator Farmer Feeds Demand for All the Parts". The New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help)
  4. ^ Marcus, Frances Frank (April 4, 1993). "Louisiana Alligator, From Pies to Picante". The New York Times.
  5. ^ Chang, L. T., and Olson, R.. Gilded Age, Gilded Cage. National Geographic Magazine, May 2008.
  6. ^ Brien, Matthew L., Cherkiss, Michael S., Parry, Mark W., Mazzotti, Frank J., Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 2007. "Housing Crocodilians in Captivity:Considerations for Central America and Caribbean" (PDF).
  7. ^ Lane, Thomas J. and Ruppert, Kathleen C., Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 1987."Alternative Opportunities for Small Farms: Alligator Production Review" (PDF).
  8. ^ Moyle, Brendan, July 2013. "Conservation that's more than skin-deep: alligator farming".
  9. ^ Brien, Matthew L., Cherkiss, Michael S., Parry, Mark W., Mazzotti, Frank J., Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, 2007. "Housing Crocodilians in Captivity:Considerations for Central America and Caribbean" (PDF).
  10. ^ Elsey, Ruth M., Mouton, Edward C. Jr, and Kinler, Noel., Southeastern Naturalist, 2012. "Effects of Feral Swine (Sus scrofa) on Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Nests in Louisiana".
  11. ^ Unlu, Isik, Kramer, Wayne L., Roy, Alma F., Foil, Lane D., Journal of Medical Entomology, July 2010. "Detection of West Nile Virus RNA in Mosquitoes and Identification of Mosquito Blood Meals Collected at Alligator Farms in Louisiana".
  12. ^ {{ cite http://www.ajtmh.org/content/74/5/908.full.pdf+html
  13. ^ Dzoma, B. M., Sejoe, S., Segwagwe, B. V., E. Tropical Animal Health and Production, June 2008. "Commercial crocodile farming in Botswana".
  14. ^ Huchzermeyer, F.W."Publich health risks of ostrich and crocodile meat" (PDF).
  15. ^ Huchzermeyer, F.W."Diseases of farmed crocodiles and ostriches" (PDF).

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