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Fall of Babylon

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For other uses, see Babylonia § The sack of Babylon and ancient Near East chronology.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire

The fall of Babylon is a term often used to denote the end of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty after being conquered by the Medo-Persians (Achaemenid Empire) in 539 BCE.

In the final years of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty, Nabonidus (Nabû-na'id, 556–539 BCE), son of the Assyrian priestess Adda-Guppi,[1] came to throne as king of Babylon in 556 BCE, after overthrowing the young king Labashi-Marduk. For long periods he entrusted rule to his son, Prince and coregent, Belshazzar who was a capable soldier, but a poor politician. All of this left him somewhat unpopular with many of his subjects, particularly the priesthood and the military class.[2] To the east, the Persians had been growing in strength. In 539 BCE, Cyrus invaded Babylonia turning it into a colony of Achaemenid Persia. Cyrus then claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings. As it turns out, Cyrus was very popular in Babylon itself, in contrast to Nabonidus.[3][4]

End of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty

Conditions

A number of factors arose which would ultimately lead to the fall of Babylon. The population of Babylonia became restive and increasingly disaffected under Nabonidus. The Marduk priesthood hated Nabonidus because of his suppression of Marduk's cult and his elevation of the cult of the moon-god Sin.[5][6] He excited a strong feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the religion of Babylonia in the temple of Marduk at Babylon, and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods. The military party also despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He seemed to have left the defense of his kingdom to Belshazzar (a capable soldier but poor diplomat who alienated the political elite), while occupying himself with the more congenial work, like excavating foundation records of the temples and determining the dates of their builders. He also spent time outside Babylonia, rebuilding temples in the Assyrian city of Harran, and also among his Arab subjects in the deserts to the south of Mesopotamia. Nabonidus and Belshazzar's Assyrian heritage is also likely to have added to this resentment. In addition, Mesopotamian military might had usually been concentrated in the martial state of Assyria. Babylonia had always been more vulnerable to conquest and invasion than its northern neighbour, and without the might of Assyria to keep foreign powers in check, Babylonia was ultimately exposed.

Preparations

It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus (549 BC) that Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persian "king of Anshan" in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, "king of the Manda" or Medes, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus established himself at Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Medes and making the Persian faction dominant among the Iranic peoples. Three years later Cyrus had become king of all Persia, and was engaged in a campaign to put down a revolt among the Assyrians. Meanwhile, Nabonidus had established a camp in the desert of his colony of Arabia, near the southern frontier of his kingdom, leaving his son Belshazzar (Belsharutsur) in command of the army.

Invasion

In 539 BCE, Cyrus invaded Babylonia.

Historical reconstruction of the fall of Babylon to Persia (539 BCE) has been problematic due to the inconsistencies between the various source documents. Both the Babylonian Chronicle and the Cyrus Cylinder describe Babylon being taken "without battle" whereas the Greek historians, Herodotus and Xenophon,[7] report that the city was besieged. The Book of Daniel implies that Babylon was taken in one night and that Belshazzar was killed.

In one reconstructed account, a battle was fought at Opis in the month of June, where the Babylonians were defeated; and immediately afterwards Sippar surrendered to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, where he was pursued by Gobryas, and on the 16th day of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippar, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus was dragged from his hiding place, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until the 3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon, and a few days afterwards Belshazzar the son of Nabonidus died in battle. A public mourning followed, lasting six days, and Cyrus' son Cambyses accompanied the corpse to the tomb.

In another reconstructed account, Nabonidus sent his son Belshazzar to head off the huge Persian army, however, already massively outnumbered. Belshazzar was betrayed by Gobryas, Governor of Assyria, who switched his forces over to the Persian side. The Babylonian forces were overwhelmed at the battle of Opis. Nabonidus fled to Borsippa, and on 12 October, after Cyrus' engineers had diverted the waters of the Euphrates, "the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Belshazzar in Xenophon is reported to have been killed, but his account is not held to be reliable here.[8] Nabonidus surrendered and was deported. Gutian guards were placed at the gates of the great temple of Bel, where the services continued without interruption. Cyrus did not arrive until 3 October, with Gobryas having acted for him in his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province of Babylon.

Absorption

Further information: Achaemenid Assyria

Babylon, like Assyria, became a colony of Achaemenid Persia in 539 BCE.

The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was facilitated by the existence of a disaffected party in the state, as well as by the presence of foreign exiles like the Jews, who had been planted in the midst of the country. One of the first acts of Cyrus accordingly was to allow these exiles to return to their own homes, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a proclamation, whereby the conqueror endeavored to justify his claim to the Babylonian throne. It is said that the Jews initially greeted the Persians as liberators. Cyrus sent the Jewish exiles back to Israel from the Babylonian Captivity.[9] Although the Jews never rebelled against the Persian occupation,[10] they were restive under the period of Darius I consolidating his rule,[11] and under Artaxerxes I of Persia,[12][13] without taking up arms, or reprisals being exacted from the Persian government.

Amongst Babylonians, feelings were still strong that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and accordingly, Cyrus henceforth assumed the imperial title of "King of Babylon." Cyrus claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Bel-Marduk and portrayed himself as the savior, chosen by Marduk to restore order and justice.[14] Cyrus was assumed by the Marduk priesthood to be wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus who removed the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines, to his formal capital Babylon. A year before Cyrus' death, in 529 BCE, he elevated his son Cambyses II in the government, making him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller title of "king of the (other) provinces" of the empire. It was only when Darius Hystaspis acquired the Persian throne and ruled it as a representative of the Zoroastrian religion, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia ceased to be acknowledged.

Immediately after Darius seized Persia, Babylonia briefly recovered its independence under a native ruler, Nidinta-Bel, who took the name of Nebuchadnezzar III. He purportedly reigned from October 521 BCE to August 520 BCE, when the Persians took it by storm, while during this period Assyria to the north also rebelled. A few years later, in 514 BCE, Babylon again revolted and declared independence under the Armenian King Arakha; on this occasion, after its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed.E-Saggila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to be kept in repair and to be a center of Babylonian patriotism.

Alexander the Great then conquered Babylon in 333 BC for the Greeks, and died there in 323 BCE. Babylonia and Assyria were absorbed into the Greek Seleucid Empire. It has long been maintained that the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population to the new capital of Babylonia, and that the ruins of the old city became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government, but the recent publication of the Babylonian Chronicles of the Hellenistic Period has shown that urban life was still very much the same well into the Parthian age (150 BCE to 226 CE). The Parthian king Mithridates conquered the region into the Arsacid Empire in 150 BC, and the region became something of a battleground between Greeks and Parthians.

Hebrew Bible

In the Hebrew Bible, Babylon was named “Mistress of Kingdoms” (Isaiah 47:5) and was the capital of the third world power of Bible history. Like the Egyptian and the Assyrian empires before it, the Babylonian Empire played a prominent role in Bible history.[15]

Book of Isaiah

The conquest of Jerusalem by Babylon and the exile of its elite in 586 BCE ushered in the next stage in the formation of the book of Isaiah. Deutero-Isaiah addresses himself to the Jews in exile, offering them the hope of return.[16] This was the period of the meteoric rise of Persia under its king Cyrus the Great – in 559 BCE he succeeded his father as ruler of a small vassal kingdom in modern eastern Iran, by 540 he ruled an empire stretching from the Mediterranean to Central Asia, and in 539 he conquered Babylon.[17] Deutero-Isaiah's predictions of the imminent fall of Babylon and his glorification of Cyrus as the deliverer of Israel date his prophecies to 550–539 BCE, and probably towards the end of this period.[18]

Isaiah 45:1-3: “This is what Jehovah has said to his anointed one, to Cyrus, whose right hand I have taken hold of, to subdue before him nations,... to open before him the two-leaved doors, so that even the gates will not be shut.”[19]

Book of Jeremiah

The Deuteronomist of the book of Jeremiah describes the fall of Babylon in chapter 50:38:

There is a devastation on her waters, and they will be dried up.
For it is a land of graven images,
And because of their frightful visions they keep acting with madness.

Book of Daniel

Main article: Belshazzar's Feast

The book of Daniel chapter 5 relates the final night of Belshazzar, just before the Medo-Persian invasion. The setting takes place during a great feast that Belshazzar holds for his grandees (Dan. 5:1). Babylon was then menaced by the besieging forces of Cyrus the Great and his ally Darius the Mede.[20] Belshazzar was the acting king of Babylon. The holding of a feast, when the city is in state of siege, is not so unusual since the Babylonians confidently regarded the city’s walls as impregnable.[21] During the feast and under the influence of wine, Belshazzar called for the vessels from the temple of Jerusalem to be brought so that he and his guests and his wives and concubines might drink from them while praising the Babylonian gods. Obviously, this request was due to no shortage of drinking vessels, but, rather, it constituted a deliberate act of contempt by the pagan king to reproach the God of the Israelites, Yahweh (Da 5:2-4). He thereby expressed defiance to Yahweh, who had inspired the prophecies foretelling Babylon’s downfall. While Belshazzar seemed lighthearted about the siege set by the enemy forces, he was now severely shaken when a hand suddenly appeared and began writing on the palace wall. His knees knocking, he called upon all his wise men to provide an interpretation of the written message, but to no avail. The record shows that the queen now gave him sound counsel, recommending Daniel as the one able to give the interpretation (Dan. 5:5-12).[22] Daniel, by inspiration, revealed the meaning of the miraculous message, predicting the fall of Babylon to the Medes and the Persians. Though the aged prophet condemned Belshazzar’s blasphemous act in using vessels of Jehovah’s worship in praising see-nothing, hear-nothing, know-nothing gods, Belshazzar held to his offer and proceeded to invest Daniel with the position of third ruler in the doomed kingdom (Da 5:17-29). Belshazzar did not live out the night, being killed as the city fell during the night of October 5, 539 B.C.E.[23] With the death of Belshazzar and the apparent surrender of Nabonidus to Cyrus, the Neo-Babylonian Empire came to a close (Dan. 5:30).[24]

Historiography

Achaemenid invasion

The cuneiform texts – the Chronicle of Nabonidus, the Cyrus Cylinder and the so-called Verse Account of Nabonidus – were written after the Persian victory. They shed unfavourable light on the Babylonian king and present Cyrus II as the liberator of Babylon, the defender of the Babylonian gods and consequently as the legitimate successor to the Babylonian throne.[25] Modern scholarship[26][27][28][29] recognizes the Cyrus Cylinder as a propaganda tablet designed to manipulate the public against Nabonidus and to legitimatize Cyrus’s conquest of Babylon. Regarding its claim that Babylon fell to the Medes and Persians without opposition, Briant writes, “It appears prima facie unlikely that Babylon could have fallen without resistance”,[30] and Piotr Michalowski comments “there is no contemporary evidence to support this suspicious claim.”[31] The Nabonidus Chronicle continues this line of propaganda; it is a rework of history from the Persian court purporting to be a text from Nabonidus and its first part does relate events that can be verified from other sources. The latter part, however, especially when dealing with the seventeenth year of Nabonidus, illustrates the old adage that victors write the history: it describes the people of Babylon welcoming Cyrus by spreading green twigs in front of him.[32]

Tolini has proposed a plausible reconstruction of how Babylon fell. A receipt for reconstruction work on the Enlil Gate demonstrates that there was a forced entry into Babylon. Tolini proposes that a portion of the Persian army under the command of General Ugbaru, penetrated the Enlil Gate, which is on the West side of the Euphrates, then crossed the river to take the eastern districts of Babylon. This may be source of the story, recorded by Herodotus, that the Persian army entered Babylon along the riverbed, having diverted the Euphrates.[33] This surprise capture of Babylon is consistent with the story recorded in Daniel 5.[34]

The success of Ugbaru's strategy in taking the city may owe something to the timing of his attack. Herodotus, Xenophon and Daniel 5 all record that Babylon was in the midst of a festival on the night it was taken. The Babylonian Chronicle records that Babylon was captured on 16th Tašrîtu, which was the night before the akitu festival in honour of Sin, the moon-god.[35]

The Cyropaedia, a historical romance which may contain a historical core,[36] contains content as described by Xenophon who had been in Persia as part of the “Ten Thousand” Greek soldiers who fought on the losing side in a Persian civil war, events which he recounted in his Anabasis. It is also possible that stories about Cyrus were told (and embellished) by Persian court society and these are the basis of Xenophon’s text. Herodotus, though writing long after the events, had traveled in Mesopotamia and spoken to Babylonians. In Cyropaedia (7.5.20-33), Xenophon, in agreement with Herodotus (I.292), says that the combined Median and Persian army entered the city via the channel of the Euphrates river, the river having been diverted into trenches that Cyrus had dug for the invasion, and that the city was unprepared because of a great festival that was being observed. Cyropaedia (7.5.26-35) describes the capture of Babylon by Gobryas,[37] who led a detachment of men to the capital and slew the king of Babylon. In 7.5.25, Gobryas remarks that "this night the whole city is given over to revelry", including to some extent the guards. Those who opposed the forces under Gobryas were struck down, including those outside the banquet hall. The capture of the city, and the slaying of the son king of the king (4.6.3), is described in Cyropaedia (7:5.26-30) as follows:

“(26) Thereupon they entered; and of those they met some were struck down and slain, and others fled into their houses, and some raised the hue and cry, but Gobryas and his friends covered the cry with their shouts, as though they were revelers themselves. And thus, making their way by the quickest route, they soon found themselves before the king’s palace. (27) Here the detachment under Gobryas and Gadatas found the gates closed, but the men appointed to attack the guards rushed on them as they lay drinking round a blazing fire, and closed with them then and there. (28) As the din grew louder and louder, those within became aware of the tumult, till, the king bidding them see what it meant, some of them opened the gates and ran out. (29) Gadatas and his men, seeing the gates swing wide, darted in, hard on the heels of the others who fled back again, and they chased them at the sword’s point into the presence of the king. (30) They found him on his feet, with his drawn scimitar in his hand. By sheer weight of numbers they overwhelmed him: and not one of his retinue escaped, they were all cut down, some flying, others snatching up anything to serve as a shield and defending themselves as best they could” .[38]

Therefore both Xenophon and Daniel 5 describe the demise of Belshazzar as occurring on the night that the city was taken.[39] Xenophon, Herodotus, and Daniel agree that the city was taken by surprise, suddenly, at the time of a festival, and with some (but apparently not much) loss of life. Another detail found in the Cyropaedia (4.6.3), but not in Herodotus, is that there were two kings reigning over the Babylonian kingdom when the city fell, father and son, and it was the younger king, who was reigning when the city was taken and who was killed that night. The Cyropaedia does not name either king, and the silence of other classical sources regarding Belshazzar led to the denial of the historicity of Daniel’s naming Belshazzar as the king who was slain, until cuneiform evidence was found corroborating the existence of Belshazzar as the king reigning in Babylon.

Babylon found itself under a foreign rule for the first time. A new system of government was put in place and the Persian multi-national-state was developed. This system of government reached its peak after the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses during the reign of Darius I, thereafter receiving its ideological foundation in the inscription of the Persian kings.[40]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ Oates, 1986, p.132
  2. ^ John Haywood, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Civilizations, Penguin Books Ltd. London, 2005, p.49
  3. ^ Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.381-382
  4. ^ Oates, 1986, p.134-135
  5. ^ A.T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire, Univ. of Chicago Press, 1948, p.38
  6. ^ Oates, 1986, p.133
  7. ^ Histories I.191; Cyropaedia VI.5.15–16; Gaston 2009, pp. 88–89 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFGaston2009 (help).
  8. ^ Harper's Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p.103
  9. ^ Isaiah 45 | Biblegateway.com
  10. ^ Bright, 1959, p.342-396
  11. ^ Bright, 1959, p.351-354
  12. ^ Bright, 1959, p.361
  13. ^ Josephus, The New Complete Works, translated by William Whiston, Kregel Publications, 1999, "Antiquites" Book 11:6, p.374
  14. ^ Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.382
  15. ^ Awake!, (2011), Jan. ed., Babylon in Bible History, p.10
  16. ^ Barker, p. 524.
  17. ^ Whybray 2004, p. 11.
  18. ^ Whybray 2004, p. 11-12.
  19. ^ Awake!, (2011), Jan. ed., Babylon in Bible History, p.12
  20. ^ Against Apion, I, 150-152; Josephus quoted the Babylonian Berossus who said that Nabonidus had holed up in Borsippa after having been defeated by the Medo-Persian forces in battle.
  21. ^ Insight 1988, p. 284: Herodotus and Xenophon state that the city had abundant supplies of necessary items and hence were not concerned with shortages. Herodotus describes the city as in a festive mood on that night, with dancing and enjoyment.
  22. ^ Insight 1988, p. 284: Raymond Philip Dougherty, 1929, suggested that "the queen" may not have been Belshazzar’s wife, but his mother who is believed to be Nebuchadnezzar II’s daughter, Nitocris.
  23. ^ Grayson 1975, p. 109, 110: According to the Nabonidus Chronicle, "the army of Cyrus (II) entered Babylon without a battle".
  24. ^ Insight 1988, p. 284.
  25. ^ IsIAO, edited by A. Panaino; G. Pettinato. With the collaboration of G. P. Basello; A. Piras. Università di Bologna & (2002). Ideologies as intercultural phenomena : proceedings of the Third Annual Symposium of the Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project ; held in Chicago, USA, October 27–31, 2000 ; [Melammu symposia, vol. III]. Milano: Ed. Mimesis. pp. 144, 149–150. ISBN 8884831075. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ Paul-Alain Bealieu, The Reign of Nabonidus, King of Babylon 556-339 B.C. (New Haven CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1989), p. 143.
  27. ^ Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire, trans. Peter T. Daniels (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002), pp. 41-43).
  28. ^ A. Kuhrt, “The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaeminid Imperial Policy” in Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 25 (1983) pp. 83-94.
  29. ^ Yamauchi, Edwin M. (1990). Persia and the Bible. Grand Rapids: Baker. p. 88.
  30. ^ Pierre Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire tr. Peter T. Daniels (Winona Lake IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002), p. 41.
  31. ^ Bill T. Arnold and Piotr Michalowski, “Achaemenid Period Historical Texts concerning Mesopotamia,” in The Ancient Near East: Historical Sources in Translation, Mark W. Chavals ed.. Malden MA: Blackwell, 2006, p. 12.
  32. ^ Pritchard, ed., James B. (1969). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. p. 306b. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  33. ^ Tolini, Gauthier (2005). "Quelques elements concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus". ARTA.
  34. ^ Gaston, Thomas (2009). Historical Issues in the Book of Daniel. Oxford: Taanathshiloh. pp. 86–105. ISBN 978-0-9561540-0-2.
  35. ^ Wolters, A (1995). "Belshazzar's Feast and the Cult of the Moon God Sin". Bulletin of Biblical Research. 4: 199–206.
  36. ^ Hirsch, Steven W. (1985). The Friendship of the Barbarians: Xenophon and the Persian Empire. Hanover and London. pp. 76–84, 88.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  37. ^ In Cyropaedia 7, Xenophon says that Gobryas (Greek: Ugbaru) was a governor of Gutium. This captor is not found in Herodotus, however the name was verified when the Cyrus Cylinder was translated, naming Gubaru as the leader of the forces that captured Babylon.
  38. ^ Translation is that of Henry Graham Dakyns, available online
  39. ^ Gaston, Thomas (2009). Historical Issues in the Book of Daniel. Oxford: Taanathshiloh. pp. 81–84. ISBN 978-0-9561540-0-2.
  40. ^ Melammu Symposia Vol.3, Ideologies, p.143

References

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