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Marriage squeeze

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Template:Globalize/US The term marriage squeeze refers to an imbalance between the number of men and women available to marry in a certain society. The term was originally coined to illustrate different patterns of marriage of men and women in the 1960s.[1] In 2000, a new marriage squeeze was observed in the United States by African American women, who find it difficult to meet and marry desirable and eligible men.[2] According to data from dating services, African American women are the least likely to receive response[clarification needed] from men of any race and ethnicity in the United States.[3][4] According to Newsweek, 43% of African American women between the ages of 30 and 34 have never been married.[5] Census data from 2010 indicate that in the United States 24% of male Black newlyweds marry outside of their race, compared to 9% of female Black newlyweds.[6] In the United Kingdom, that asymmetry still exists but the ratio is 1.46.[7]

Marriage squeeze also happens in China and India.[8][9] Studies of marriage patterns in China have emphasized the male-biased sex ratio but have largely neglected age structure as a factor in China’s male marriage squeeze.[10] The strong preference for sons and the lower social status of females in China have resulted in discrimination against girls. This is noticeable in demography from excess female child mortality and a higher than normal sex ratio at birth, which result in a large number of surplus males in the marriage market.[8] In 2007, 36% of China's population was subject to a strict one-child policy, with an additional 53% being allowed to have a second child if the first child was a girl. This was put into action to lower the birth rates in China.

Causes of the African American marriage squeeze

There have been a variety of suggestions to explain the patterns of marriage observed:

Incarceration

As a category, African American men suffer from higher rates of incarceration, unemployment, and poor health than do their white counterparts in the United States. These conditions often make their lives unstable, and disqualify them from raising a home effectively, in effect brand them as "unmarriageable".[11] Rates of incarceration for marriage-age African American males are far higher than rates for females, further contributing to the male–female gap. As of 2002, 10.4% of all African American males between the ages of 25 and 29 were sentenced and in prison.[12] The African-American male–female disparity is highest between the ages of 25 and 29, when for every two African-American men, there are nearly three African-American women.[13]

Desire to "marry up"

Further information: Hypergamy

There is a desire among educated women of all races to marry partners within or above their social and economic class;[14][citation needed] when African American women restrict their marriage prospects to African American men, African American women risk either marrying below their socioeconomic class or not marrying at all as African American women consistently achieve better completion rates in higher education than African American men do.[15]

Sexual selection on skin color

Further information: Colorism

Skin color is a sexually dimorphic trait: universally in indigenous populations, adult females have lighter pigmentation than males.[16] It has been proposed that mate choice contributes to the sexual dimorphism by a process in which (dark skinned) African males are perceived as more masculine and (light skinned) European females as more feminine.[17] If true, the sexual selection hypothesis could explain the observed marriage squeeze.[18] A meta-analysis of anthropometric studies, however, found no evidence to support the sexual selection hypothesis.[19] Rather, it is widely accepted that processes of natural selection have caused lighter skin in women because they need more vitamin D and calcium to support the development of the fetus and nursing infant and to maintain their own health.[20]

See also

References

  1. ^ Akers, Donald S. (1967-06-01). "On Measuring the Marriage Squeeze". Demography. 4 (2): 907–924. doi:10.2307/2060328. ISSN 0070-3370.
  2. ^ Crowder, Kyle D.; Tolnay, Stewart E. (2000-08-01). "A New Marriage Squeeze for Black Women: The Role of Racial Intermarriage by Black Men". Journal of Marriage and Family. 62 (3): 792–807. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00792.x. ISSN 1741-3737.
  3. ^ The uncomfortable racial preferences revealed by online dating
  4. ^ How Your Race Affects The Messages You Get
  5. ^ "The Black Gender Gap". Gene Expression. 2003-02-23. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  6. ^ Wang, Wendy (2012-02-16). "The Rise of Intermarriage: Rates, Characteristics Vary by Race and Gender" (PDF). Pew Research Center.
  7. ^ DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031703
  8. ^ a b Guilmoto, Christophe Z. "Skewed Sex Ratios at Birth and Future Marriage Squeeze in China and India, 2005-2100". Springer on behalf of the Population Association of America.
  9. ^ Crowder, Kyle D.; Tolnay, Stewart E. (August 2000). "A New Marriage Squeeze for Black Women: The Role of Racial Intermarriage by Black Men". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 62 (3). Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations: 792–80. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00792.x. ISSN 0022-2445. OCLC 49976459. Retrieved 2008-07-19.
  10. ^ Guilmoto, Christophe Z. "Skewed Sex Ratios at Birth and Future Marriage Squeeze in China and India, 2005-2100". Demography. doi:10.1007/s13524-011-0083-7.
  11. ^ (Reference: Benokraitis, N. 2011. Marriage and Families: Choices and Constrainsts. Prenhall, NY.
  12. ^ Harrison, Paige M.; Beck, Allen J. (July 2003). "Prisoners in 2002" (PDF). Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. U. S. Department of Justice: Office of Justice Programs. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  13. ^ O'Connor, Vikki (February 2006). "Barriers to Marriage and Parenthood for African-American Men & Women" (PDF). Syracuse University. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  14. ^ Kalmijn, Matthijs (1993-09-01). "Trends in Black/White Intermarriage". Social Forces. 72 (1): 119–146. doi:10.1093/sf/72.1.119. ISSN 0037-7732.
  15. ^ Melendez, Michele M. (2004-04-25). "Fewer Women are 'Marrying up'". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
  16. ^ Berghe, Pierre L. van den; Frost, Peter (1986-01-01). "Skin color preference, sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: A case of gene culture co‐evolution?". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 9 (1): 87–113. doi:10.1080/01419870.1986.9993516. ISSN 0141-9870.
  17. ^ Lewis, Michael B. (2011-01-01). "Who is the fairest of them all? Race, attractiveness and skin color sexual dimorphism". Personality and Individual Differences. 50 (2): 159–162. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.018.
  18. ^ Lewis, Michael B. (2012-02-09). "A Facial Attractiveness Account of Gender Asymmetries in Interracial Marriage". PLoS ONE. 7 (2): e31703. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031703. PMC 3276508. PMID 22347504.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  19. ^ Madrigal, Lorena; Kelly, William (2007-03-01). "Human skin-color sexual dimorphism: a test of the sexual selection hypothesis". Am J Phys Anthropol. 132 (3): 470–82. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20453.
  20. ^ Jablonski, Nina (2012). Living Color. Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25153-3.
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