Wikipedia:WikiProject Chemicals/Chembox validation/VerifiedDataSandbox and Kynurenine: Difference between pages

| Name = {{sm|l}}-Kynurenine

| verifiedrevid = 461936957

| ImageFile = L-Kynurenine.svg

| ImageSize = 200px

| ImageAlt = Skeletal formula of L-kynurenine

| ImageFile1 = L-Kynurenine-zwitterion-3D-balls.png

| ImageAlt1 = Ball-and-stick model of the L-kynurenine molecule as a zwitterion

| PIN = (2''S'')-2-Amino-4-(2-aminophenyl)-4-oxo-butanoic acid

| OtherNames = (''S'')-Kynurenine

| SystematicName =

| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers

| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}}

| CASNo = 343-65-7

| CASNo_Comment = ({{sm|d}}/{{sm|l}})

| CASNo2_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}}

| CASNo2 = 2922-83-0

| CASNo2_Comment = ({{sm|l}})

| CASNo3_Ref = {{cascite|changed|??}}

| CASNo3 = 13441-51-5

| CASNo3_Comment = ({{sm|d}})

| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}

| PubChem_Comment = ({{sm|d}}/{{sm|l}})

| PubChem1=1152206

| PubChem1_Comment = ({{sm|d}})

| PubChem2=161166

| PubChem2_Comment = ({{sm|l}})

| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}

| UNII = 02JW4J5R44

| SMILES=c1ccc(c(c1)C(=O)C[C@@H](C(=O)O)N)N

| MeSHName=Kynurenine

| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties

| C=10|H=12|N=2|O=3

| Appearance=

| Density=

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| Solubility=

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| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards

| MainHazards=

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'''{{sm|l}}-Kynurenine''' is a [[metabolite]] of the amino acid {{sm|l}}-[[tryptophan]] used in the production of [[Niacin (substance)|niacin]].

Kynurenine is synthesized by the enzyme [[tryptophan dioxygenase]], which is made primarily but not exclusively in the liver, and [[indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase]], which is made in many tissues in response to immune activation.<ref name="pmid21976023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Opitz CA, Litzenburger UM, Sahm F, Ott M, Tritschler I, Trump S, Schumacher T, Jestaedt L, Schrenk D, Weller M, Jugold M, Guillemin GJ, Miller CL, Lutz C, Radlwimmer B, Lehmann I, von Deimling A, Wick W, Platten M | title = An endogenous tumour-promoting ligand of the human aryl hydrocarbon receptor | journal = Nature | volume = 478 | issue = 7368 | pages = 197–203 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21976023 | doi = 10.1038/nature10491 | bibcode = 2011Natur.478..197O | doi-access = free}}</ref> Kynurenine and its further breakdown products carry out diverse biological functions, including dilating blood vessels during inflammation<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Y, Liu H, McKenzie G, Witting PK, Stasch JP, Hahn M, Changsirivathanathamrong D, Wu BJ, Ball HJ, Thomas SR, Kapoor V, Celermajer DS, Mellor AL, Keaney JF, Hunt NH, Stocker R | title = Kynurenine is an endothelium-derived relaxing factor produced during inflammation | journal = Nature Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 279–85 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20190767 | pmc = 3556275 | doi = 10.1038/nm.2092}}</ref> and regulating the immune response.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Nguyen NT, Kimura A, Nakahama T, Chinen I, Masuda K, Nohara K, Fujii-Kuriyama Y, Kishimoto T | title = Aryl hydrocarbon receptor negatively regulates dendritic cell immunogenicity via a kynurenine-dependent mechanism | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 107 | issue = 46 | pages = 19961–6 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21041655 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1014465107 | pmc=2993339| bibcode = 2010PNAS..10719961N| doi-access = free }}</ref> Some cancers increase kynurenine production, which increases tumor growth.<ref name="pmid21976023" />

Kynurenine protects the eye by absorbing [[Ultraviolet|UV]] light, especially in the UVA region (315-400&nbsp;nm).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sherin |first=Peter S. |last2=Grilj |first2=Jakob |last3=Tsentalovich |first3=Yuri P. |last4=Vauthey |first4=Eric |date=2009-04-09 |title=Ultrafast Excited-State Dynamics of Kynurenine, a UV Filter of the Human Eye |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jp900541b |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry B |language=en |volume=113 |issue=14 |pages=4953–4962 |doi=10.1021/jp900541b |issn=1520-6106}}</ref> Kynurenine is present in the lens and retina as one of multiple tryptophan derivatives produced in the eye, including [[3-Hydroxykynurenine|3-hydroxykynurenine]], that together provide UV protection and aid in enhancing visual acuity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wood |first=Andrew M. |last2=Truscott |first2=Roger J. W. |date=1993-03-01 |title=UV Filters in Human Lenses: Tryptophan Catabolism |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483583710419 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=317–325 |doi=10.1006/exer.1993.1041 |issn=0014-4835}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Truscott |first=Roger J. W. |last2=Wood |first2=Andrew M. |last3=Carver |first3=John A. |last4=Sheil |first4=Margaret M. |last5=Stutchbury |first5=Glen M. |last6=Zhu |first6=Jiulin |last7=Kilby |first7=Greg W. |date=1994-07-11 |title=A new UV-filter compound in human lenses |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0014579394006016 |journal=FEBS Letters |volume=348 |issue=2 |pages=173–176 |doi=10.1016/0014-5793(94)00601-6 |issn=0014-5793}}</ref> The use of kynurenine as a UV filter is consistent with its photostability and low photosensitization, owing to its efficient relaxation from the UV-induced excited state.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tuna |first=Deniz |last2=Došlić |first2=Nađa |last3=Mališ |first3=Momir |last4=Sobolewski |first4=Andrzej L. |last5=Domcke |first5=Wolfgang |date=2015-02-12 |title=Mechanisms of Photostability in Kynurenines: A Joint Electronic-Structure and Dynamics Study |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jp501782v |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry B |language=en |volume=119 |issue=6 |pages=2112–2124 |doi=10.1021/jp501782v |issn=1520-6106}}</ref> The concentration of this UV filter decreases with age,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bova |first=L. M. |last2=Sweeney |first2=M. H. |last3=Jamie |first3=J. F. |last4=Truscott |first4=R. J. |date=January 2001 |title=Major changes in human ocular UV protection with age |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11133868 |journal=Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=200–205 |issn=0146-0404 |pmid=11133868}}</ref> and this loss of free kynurenine and the concomitant formation of relatively more photosensitizing kynurenine derivatives and kynurenine-protein conjugates may contribute to the formation of cataracts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tsentalovich |first=Yuri P. |last2=Sherin |first2=Peter S. |last3=Kopylova |first3=Lyudmila V. |last4=Cherepanov |first4=Ivan V. |last5=Grilj |first5=Jakob |last6=Vauthey |first6=Eric |date=2011-09-29 |title=Photochemical properties of UV Filter molecules of the human eye |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21873681 |journal=Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science |volume=52 |issue=10 |pages=7687–7696 |doi=10.1167/iovs.11-8120 |issn=1552-5783 |pmid=21873681}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vazquez |first=Santiago |last2=Aquilina |first2=J. Andrew |last3=Sheil |first3=Margaret M. |last4=Truscott |first4=Roger J. W. |last5=Jamie |first5=Joanne F. |date=2002-02-15 |title=Novel Protein Modification by Kynurenine in Human Lenses* |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021925819825103 |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=277 |issue=7 |pages=4867–4873 |doi=10.1074/jbc.M107529200 |issn=0021-9258|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sherin |first=Peter S. |last2=Grilj |first2=Jakob |last3=Kopylova |first3=Lyudmila V. |last4=Yanshole |first4=Vadim V. |last5=Tsentalovich |first5=Yuri P. |last6=Vauthey |first6=Eric |date=2010-09-16 |title=Photophysics and Photochemistry of the UV Filter Kynurenine Covalently Attached to Amino Acids and to a Model Protein |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jp104485k |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry B |language=en |volume=114 |issue=36 |pages=11909–11919 |doi=10.1021/jp104485k |issn=1520-6106}}</ref>

Evidence suggests that increased kynurenine production may precipitate depressive symptoms associated with [[interferon]] treatment for [[hepatitis C]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Capuron L, Neurauter G, Musselman DL, Lawson DH, Nemeroff CB, Fuchs D, Miller AH | title = Interferon-alpha–induced changes in tryptophan metabolism | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 54 | issue = 9 | pages = 906–14 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14573318 | doi = 10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00173-2 | s2cid = 24079984}}</ref> Cognitive deficits in [[schizophrenia]] are associated with imbalances in the enzymes that break down kynurenine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wonodi I, Stine OC, Sathyasaikumar KV, Roberts RC, Mitchell BD, Hong LE, Kajii Y, Thaker GK, Schwarcz R | title = Downregulated Kynurenine 3-Monooxygenase Gene Expression and Enzyme Activity in Schizophrenia and Genetic Association with Schizophrenia Endophenotypes | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 68 | issue = 7 | pages = 665–74 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21727251 | pmc = 3855543 | doi = 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.71}}</ref> Blood levels of kynurenine are reduced in people with [[bipolar disorder]].<ref name="Bartoli">{{cite journal |last1=Bartoli |first1=F |last2=Misiak |first2=B |last3=Callovini |first3=T |last4=Cavaleri |first4=D |last5=Cioni |first5=RM |last6=Crocamo |first6=C |last7=Savitz |first7=JB |last8=Carrà |first8=G |title=The kynurenine pathway in bipolar disorder: a meta-analysis on the peripheral blood levels of tryptophan and related metabolites. |journal=Molecular Psychiatry |date=19 October 2020 |volume=26 |issue=7 |pages=3419–3429 |doi=10.1038/s41380-020-00913-1 |pmid=33077852|s2cid=224314102 }}</ref> Kynurenine production is increased in Alzheimer's disease<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guillemin GJ, Brew BJ, Noonan CE, Takikawa O, Cullen KM | title = Indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase and quinolinic acid Immunoreactivity in Alzheimer's disease hippocampus | journal = Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 395–404 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16008823 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2990.2005.00655.x | s2cid = 7754894}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Johnson |first=Lance A. |last2=Macauley |first2=Shannon L. |date=2024-08-23 |title=Alzheimer’s and metabolism wed with IDO1 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr5836 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=385 |issue=6711 |pages=826–827 |doi=10.1126/science.adr5836 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> and cardiovascular disease<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wirleitner B, Rudzite V, Neurauter G, Murr C, Kalnins U, Erglis A, Trusinskis K, Fuchs D | title = Immune activation and degradation of tryptophan in coronary heart disease | journal = European Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 33 | issue = 7 | pages = 550–4 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12814390 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2362.2003.01186.x | s2cid = 10300941}}</ref> where its metabolites are associated with cognitive deficits<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gulaj E, Pawlak K, Bien B, Pawlak D | title = Kynurenine and its metabolites in Alzheimer's disease patients | journal = Advances in Medical Sciences | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 204–11 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20639188 | doi = 10.2478/v10039-010-0023-6}}</ref> and depressive symptoms.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swardfager W, Herrmann N, Dowlati Y, Oh PI, Kiss A, Walker SE, Lanctôt KL | title = Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase activation and depressive symptoms in patients with coronary artery disease | journal = Psychoneuroendocrinology | volume = 34 | issue = 10 | pages = 1560–6 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19540675 | doi = 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.05.019 | s2cid = 36687413}}</ref> Kynurenine is also associated with [[tic]]s.<ref name="pmid17665285">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoekstra PJ, Anderson GM, Troost PW, Kallenberg CG, Minderaa RB | title = Plasma kynurenine and related measures in tic disorder patients | journal = European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 16 | pages = 71–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17665285 | doi = 10.1007/s00787-007-1009-1 | s2cid = 39150343}}</ref><ref name="urlKynurenine potentiates">{{cite journal | vauthors = McCreary AC, Handley SL | title = Kynurenine potentiates the DOI head shake in mice | journal = Journal of Psychopharmacology | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–70 | year = 1995 | pmid = 22298697 | doi = 10.1177/026988119500900112 | s2cid = 28700510}}</ref>

[[Kynureninase]] catabolizes the conversion of kynurenine into [[anthranilic acid]]<ref>[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/IEntry?ac=IPR010111 Kynureninase], European Bioinformatics Institute</ref> while [[kynurenine-oxoglutarate transaminase]] catabolizes its conversion into [[kynurenic acid]]. [[Kynurenine 3-hydroxylase]] converts kynurenine to [[3-hydroxykynurenine]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Saito Y, Hayaishi O, Rothberg S | title = Studies on Oxygenases | journal = The Journal of Biological Chemistry | volume = 229 | issue = 2 | pages = 921–34 | date = 1957-12-01 | doi = 10.1016/S0021-9258(19)63696-3 | pmid = 13502353 | url = http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=13502353 | doi-access = free }}{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Kynurenine has also been identified as one of two compounds that makes up the pigment that gives the [[Misumena vatia|goldenrod crab spider]] its yellow color.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oxford|first1=G. S.|last2=Gillespie|first2=R. G.|title=Evolution and Ecology of Spider Coloration|date=January 1998|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.619|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|volume=43|issue=1|pages=619–643|doi=10.1146/annurev.ento.43.1.619|pmid=15012400|s2cid=6963733 |issn=0066-4170}}</ref>

[[image:Kynurenine pathway wordless.svg|thumb|280px|left|The [[kynurenine pathway]], which connects [[quinolinic acid]] to tryptophan. The pathway is named for the first intermediate, kynurenine, which is a precursor to [[kynurenic acid]] and [[3-Hydroxykynurenine|3-hydroxykynurenine]].<ref name=Schwarcz>{{cite journal|last=Schwarcz|first=Robert |author2=John P. Bruno |author3=Paul J. Muchowski |author4=Hui-Qiu Wu|title=Kynurenines in the Mammalian Brain: When Physiology Meets Pathology|journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience|date=July 2012|volume=13|pages=465–477|doi=10.1038/nrn3257|issue=7|pmid=22678511 |pmc=3681811}}</ref>]]

== Kynurenine pathway dysfunction ==

Dysfunctional states of distinct steps of the [[kynurenine pathway]] (such as kynurenine, [[kynurenic acid]], [[quinolinic acid]], [[anthranilic acid]], 3-hydroxykynurenine) have been described for a number of disorders, including:<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stone TW | year = 2001 | title = Kynurenines in the CNS: from endogenous obscurity to therapeutic importance | journal = Progress in Neurobiology | volume = 64 | issue = 2| pages = 185–218 | doi=10.1016/s0301-0082(00)00032-0| pmid = 11240212 | s2cid = 6446144}}</ref>

*[[HIV dementia]]

*[[Tourette syndrome]]

*[[Tic disorders]]

*[[Psychiatric disorders]] (such as [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]],<ref name="Bartoli" /> [[major depression]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Duan|last2=Ray|first2=Balmiki|last3=Neavin|first3=Drew R.|last4=Zhang|first4=Jiabin|last5=Athreya|first5=Arjun P.|last6=Biernacka|first6=Joanna M.|last7=Bobo|first7=William V.|last8=Hall-Flavin|first8=Daniel K.|last9=Skime|first9=Michelle K.|last10=Zhu|first10=Hongjie|last11=Jenkins|first11=Gregory D.|date=January 10, 2018|title=Beta-defensin 1, aryl hydrocarbon receptor and plasma kynurenine in major depressive disorder: metabolomics-informed genomics|journal=Translational Psychiatry|volume=8|issue=1|pages=10|doi=10.1038/s41398-017-0056-8|issn=2158-3188|pmc=5802574|pmid=29317604}}</ref> [[anxiety disorders]])

*[[Multiple sclerosis]]

*[[Huntington's disease]]

*[[Encephalopathies]]

*[[Lipid metabolism]]

*[[NAFLD|Liver fat metabolism]]

*[[Systemic lupus erythematosus]]

*[[Glutaric aciduria]]

*[[Vitamin B6 deficiency|Vitamin B₆ deficiency]]

*[[Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome]]

*[[Myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome]]<ref name="IDO Metabolic Trap">{{cite journal |last1=Kashi |first1=Alex A. |last2=Davis |first2=Ronald W. |last3=Phair |first3=Robert D. |title=The IDO Metabolic Trap Hypothesis for the Etiology of ME/CFS |journal=Diagnostics |date=2019 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=82 |doi=10.3390/diagnostics9030082|pmid=31357483 |pmc=6787624 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Downregulation of [[Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase|kynurenine-3-monooxygenase]] (KMO) can be caused by genetic [[Polymorphism (biology)|polymorphisms]], [[cytokines]], or both.<ref name="urlNeurobiochemie">{{cite web | url = http://www.klinikum.uni-muenchen.de/Institut-fuer-Laboratoriumsmedizin/de/forschung/neurobiochemie/index.html | title = Neurobiochemie | language = de}}</ref><ref name="pmid20658274">{{cite journal | vauthors = Müller N, Myint AM, Schwarz MJ | title = Inflammatory biomarkers and depression | journal = Neurotox Res | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 308–18 | year = 2011 | pmid = 20658274 | doi = 10.1007/s12640-010-9210-2 | s2cid = 3225744}}</ref> KMO deficiency leads to an accumulation of kynurenine and to a shift within the tryptophan [[metabolic pathway]] towards kynurenine acid and [[anthranilic acid]].<ref name="pmid21727251">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wonodi I, Stine OC, Sathyasaikumar KV, Roberts RC, Mitchell BD, Hong LE, Kajii Y, Thaker GK, Schwarcz R | title = Downregulated kynurenine 3-monooxygenase gene expression and enzyme activity in schizophrenia and genetic association with schizophrenia endophenotypes | journal = Arch. Gen. Psychiatry | volume = 68 | issue = 7 | pages = 665–74 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21727251 | pmc = 3855543 | doi = 10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.71}}</ref> Kynurenine-3-monooxygenase deficiency is associated with disorders of the brain (e.g. major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, tic disorders) <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marx W, McGuinness AJ, Rocks T, Ruusunen A, Cleminson J, Walker AJ, Gomes-da-Costa S, Lane M, Sanches M, Diaz AP, Tseng PT, Lin PY, Berk M, Clarke G, O'Neil A, Jacka F, Stubbs B, Carvalho AF, Quevedo J, Soares JC, Fernandes BS|date=2020|title=The kynurenine pathway in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of 101 studies|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33230205/|journal=Molecular Psychiatry|volume=26|issue=8|pages=4158–4178|doi=10.1038/s41380-020-00951-9|pmid=33230205|s2cid=227132820|via=doi: 10.1038/s41380-020-00951-9. PMID 33230205}}</ref> and of the liver.<ref name="pmid17665285"/><ref name="pmid21693093">{{cite journal | vauthors = Holtze M, Saetre P, Engberg G, Schwieler L, Werge T, Andreassen OA, Hall H, Terenius L, Agartz I, Jönsson EG, Schalling M, Erhardt S | title = Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase polymorphisms: relevance for kynurenic acid synthesis in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls | journal = J Psychiatry Neurosci | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–7 | year = 2012 | pmid = 21693093 | pmc = 3244499 | doi = 10.1503/jpn.100175}}</ref><ref name="pmid24567701">{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell BM, Charych E, Lee AW, Möller T | title = Kynurenines in CNS disease: regulation by inflammatory cytokines | journal = Front Neurosci | volume = 8 | pages = 12 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24567701 | pmc = 3915289 | doi = 10.3389/fnins.2014.00012| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid24836604">{{cite journal | vauthors = Buness A, Roth A, Herrmann A, Schmitz O, Kamp H, Busch K, Suter L | title = Identification of metabolites, clinical chemistry markers and transcripts associated with hepatotoxicity | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 5 | pages = e97249 | year = 2014 | pmid = 24836604 | pmc = 4023975 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0097249 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...997249B| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid4168935">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hirata Y, Kawachi T, Sugimura T | title = Fatty liver induced by injection of L-tryptophan | journal = Biochim. Biophys. Acta | volume = 144 | issue = 2 | pages = 233–41 | year = 1967 | pmid = 4168935 | doi = 10.1016/0005-2760(67)90153-1}}</ref>

==Drug development==

It is hypothesized that the kynurenine pathway is partly responsible for the therapeutic effect of [[lithium (medication)|lithium]] on [[bipolar disorder]]. If that is the case, it could be a target of drug discovery.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bartoli |first1=Francesco |last2=Cioni |first2=Riccardo M. |last3=Cavaleri |first3=Daniele |last4=Callovini |first4=Tommaso |last5=Crocamo |first5=Cristina |last6=Misiak |first6=Błażej |last7=Savitz |first7=Jonathan B. |last8=Carrà |first8=Giuseppe |title=The association of kynurenine pathway metabolites with symptom severity and clinical features of bipolar disorder: An overview |journal=European Psychiatry |date=January 2022 |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=e82 |doi=10.1192/j.eurpsy.2022.2340 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/association-of-kynurenine-pathway-metabolites-with-symptom-severity-and-clinical-features-of-bipolar-disorder-an-overview/7D449E6F103A3840D53ECD12530756E6 |language=en |issn=0924-9338|doi-access=free |hdl=10281/397221 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fornaro |first1=Michele |last2=Kardash |first2=Lubna |last3=Novello |first3=Stefano |last4=Fusco |first4=Andrea |last5=Anastasia |first5=Annalisa |last6=De Berardis |first6=Domenico |last7=Perna |first7=Giampaolo |last8=Carta |first8=Mauro Giovanni |title=Progress in bipolar disorder drug design toward the development of novel therapeutic targets: a clinician’s perspective |journal=Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery |date=4 March 2018 |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=221–228 |doi=10.1080/17460441.2018.1428554}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase]] (IDO)

* [[Tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase]] (TDO)

* [[N'-Formylkynurenine|''{{prime|N}}''-Formylkynurenine]]

== References ==

{{reflist|30em}}

{{Amino acid metabolism intermediates}}

{{Ionotropic glutamate receptor modulators}}

[[Category:Aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitors]]

[[Category:Alpha-Amino acids]]

[[Category:Anilines]]

[[Category:Human metabolites]]

[[Category:NMDA receptor antagonists]]