Altica cirsicola
| Altica cirsicola | |
|---|---|
| |
| Museum specimen | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Arthropoda |
| Class: | Insecta |
| Order: | Coleoptera |
| Infraorder: | Cucujiformia |
| Family: | Chrysomelidae |
| Genus: | Altica |
| Species: | A. cirsicola
|
| Binomial name | |
| Altica cirsicola Ohno, 1960
| |
Altica cirsicola is a species of flea beetle from the Altica genus, which belongs to the Chrysomelidae family (commonly known as leaf beetles).[1][2] A. cirsicola is found throughout East Asia.[3] Adults feed exclusively on plants from the Cirsium genus.[4] This food resource provides the species with the opportunity to create holes in the leaves of the plant, which helps to provide the beetles with camouflage and protection from predators.[5]
Both male and female A. cirsicola make multiple matings throughout their lives.[6] A. cirsicola males have been discovered to exhibit mate choice, using cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) as one of several signals to help them identify potential mates.[6]
A. cirsicola have the ability to jump extensive distances, which provides them with a method of escaping predators.[7] The jumping mechanism of A. cirsicola and other flea beetles has been described to be extremely efficient, and several studies have been conducted to analyze this jumping ability.[7][8] The jumping mechanism of A. cirsicola and other flea beetles has led to a proposed design for a robotic bionic leg that can jump.[8]
A. cirsicola have microbial communities contained within their gut.[4] This microbiome has been compared to microbiomes of other sympatric Altica species, and it is believed that the presence of such bacterial communities may provide several benefits to the beetles.[4]
Geographic range
Although beetles of the genus Altica are widely distributed throughout the world, A. cirsicola is primarily distributed throughout East Asia.[9][3] The species is native to the countries of Japan and China.[10] More recent reports have also found the species in other regions, with a 2024 publication reporting the first documented presence of the species in Russia.[11] A. cirsicola also has had a reported presence in both North and South Korea, and there is a particular recording of the species in Mt. Hallasan National Park.[1][12] Although A. cirsicola is nearly identical morphologically to the Altica carduorum species, A. carduorum is instead native to Europe.[10]
Food resources
Like many other leaf beetle species, A. cirsicola is an herbivore that feeds on the leaves of plants.[5] A. cirsicola only eats plants that are from the Cirsium genus.[4] In particular, the species is known to feed on Cirsium setosum.[5]
When A. cirsicola feeds on C. setosum, the beetle makes specialized holes in the leaves of the plant.[5] The holes that are created in the plant are typically about half of the size of the insect's body and are usually uniform.[5] One study by Ren et al. (2018) found that the anatomy of A. cirsicola, particularly the volume of its foregut and the restricted range of motion in the head-prothorax region, limit the size of the hole that the beetle creates while feeding.[5] The same study also determined that the presence of these holes make it more difficult to visually recognize the beetles.[5] These findings suggest that the holes A. cirsicola makes in its food resources serve as a form of camouflage.[5]
A. cirsicola may also serve as a potential biological control method for the Canada thistle, Cirsium arvense.[10] The Canada thistle is an invasive species of plant that is known to lead to crop damage.[13] A similar species of beetle, Altica carduorum, was used in the 1960s as a method of controlling the Canada thistle in North America, but this effort was not effective.[10] Preliminary findings have suggested that A. cirsicola may be another potential method of controlling the Canada thistle.[10]
Protective behavior
Hole-feeding camouflage
A. cirsicola, along with some other leaf beetle species, create uniform holes while they feed on the leaves of their host plant food resources.[5] Ren et al. (2018) demonstrated that these holes help to camouflage the species by changing the background environment of which the beetle interacts.[5] Using a computer program and human participants to model potential predators in the wild, the researchers found that the presence of the holes in the leaves made it more difficult for humans to identify the A. cirsicola beetles.[5] The difficulty in identifying the beetles increased when there were more holes present in the leaves and when the size of the holes were similar to the size of the beetles. Through analysis of the feeding behaviors of A. cirsicola, it was also suggested that the species may optimize their feeding to allow for hole sizes and quantities that increase the efficacy of its camouflage.[5] Although the study used humans to model predators, the researchers believe the primary predators that may have led to the hole-feeding camouflage behavior are birds.[5] Because birds primarily use visual cues to find the insects, it is believed that the hole-feeding camouflage greatly helps the beetles avoid such predators.[5]
Jumping
Another behavior that A. cirsicola exhibits that helps it to avoid predators is jumping.[7] Jumping is a protective behavior found among many insects, but there have been extensive studies investigating the mechanisms of jumping in A. cirsicola and other flea beetles.[7][8] A. cirsicola is able to jump far distances that are much longer in length than its own body length.[8] In the wild, it is believed that the species jumps into leave clusters to quickly escape from predators.[7]
Mating
Like other Altica species, A. cirsicola males and females mate multiple times throughout their lives.[6] Both males and females may have multiple sexual partners throughout their lives.[6] Copulation in the species typically has a duration of approximately 20 minutes.[6] After copulation, mate guarding may occur, which may prevent other opportunities to mate for the beetle that is guarded. This mate guarding may occur for multiple hours after copulation.[6]
Male choice
Although male mate choice is typically less common in animals, it has been found that male mate choice may be selected for in A. cirsicola.[6] Because A. cirsicola populations have generations that overlap and are typically clustered together, males of the species usually encounter both sexually immature and mature females, and also may encounter other males or even beetles of other Altica species.[6] Because of the wide variety of encounters that male A. cirsicola have during their lives, they are able to identify the sex of other individuals and, if they are female, whether or not they are sexually mature. [6]
It has been found that A. cirsicola males do not use behavioral cues to find mates.[6] One study by Xue et al. (2016) has demonstrated that cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) play a role in identifying potential mates.[6] CHCs are chains of hydrocarbons that cover the cuticles of most insects that typically play roles in communication and providing waterproofing qualities.[14] It has been discovered that in A. cirsicola, the chemical makeup of CHCs differ by sex and sexual maturity.[6] Males may use an assessment of these differences to help them identify mates. However, it is believed by researchers that other unknown signals also play a role in male mate choice, and the use of CHCs is only one component.[6]
Physiology
Adult Altica cirsicola have a width of approximately 2 mm and a length of approximately 4mm.[7] The adult beetles have wings that are often used to assist with jumping.[7] Their body shapes are elongated and their sides are somewhat convex.[10] They are a dark blue in color and have a metallic quality, along with some purple tones.[10] A. cirsicola is very visually similar to another flea beetle species, Altica carduorum, and it is very difficult to reliably distinguish between the two species morphologically.[10] Despite their morphological similarities, DNA analysis suggests that the two are separate species.[10]
Jumping mechanism
A. cirsicola has the ability to jump, which allows it to quickly escape from predators.[7] The jumping process of A. cirsicola, along with several other flea beetles, has been described to consist of four steps.[8] The first step is a preparation phase, where the beetle contracts the muscles in its hind legs.[8] The second step is an initiation phase, where strain is built up in the femur, allowing the femur to act somewhat like a catapult.[8] The third step is very brief, and it consists of an accumulation of strain that can no longer be held, leading to the trigger of the jump.[8] Finally, in the fourth step, the beetle is catapulted from the ground and the strain is released so the muscles start to relax.[8]
The jumping mechanism of A. cirsicola and other flea beetles is described to be very efficient, as it allows the beetles to jump extremely far distances relative to the length of their body in a very short amount of time.[8] Furthermore, the beetles are able to jump repeatedly for over 30 jumps without becoming greatly tired.[8] The efficient nature of the jumping mechanism in these beetles has inspired a design of a bionic leg that can jump, which could possibly be used in robots.[8]
One study by Zong et al. (2022) investigated the landing of A. cirsicola onto inclined platforms after jumping.[7] This study found that A. cirsicola has three noticeably different modes that are used when jumping, which varies between individuals. One mode is termed the "wingless mode", in which the wings of the beetle are closed while it jumps and remain closed while in the air.[7] Another mode is termed the "intermediate mode", in which the wings of the beetle are closed initially but are then opened while in the air.[7] It is suspected that in this mode, the wings are opened to help reduce spinning. The last mode is termed the "winged mode", where the beetle uses its wings by flapping while taking off.[7] It was found that the "wingless mode" was the most common mode used to jump, but most individuals preferred a particular mode.[7] It was also found that the use of wings led to slower jumps, which helped to decrease the impact of the landing on the beetles.[7]
Microbiome
A. cirsicola have microbial communities in their gut that may provide several benefits.[4] In a study by Wei et al. (2020) investigating the gut microbiomes of three sympatric Altica beetle species (A. cirsicola, A. fragariae, and A. viridicyanea), it was found that treating Altica beetles with antibiotics led to negative effects on the development of the beetles.[4] The microbiomes in these species may provide several benefits, such as providing nutrients that may promote growth and helping with the digestion of compounds from plant food resources that may be toxic to the beetles.[4]
Although the three species of Altica beetles in the aforementioned study feed on different species of plants, it was found that the bacterial communities did not vary significantly between the beetle species.[4] Thus, it is believed that the three sympatric Altica beetles may obtain their gut microbiome from a shared source, such as the soil, rather than from their respective plant food resources.[4] Although there were not significant differences in the gut bacterial composition across the three species, it was found that the geographic location in which the beetles were obtained did have an effect on the types of bacteria present in their gut.[4]
References
- ^ a b "An annotated checklist of leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) of the Korean Peninsula, with comments and new records - Far Eastern Entomologist". www.biosoil.ru. doi:10.25221/fee.404.1. Retrieved 2024-04-04.
- ^ Phillips, Elenor F.; Gillett-Kaufman, Jennifer Lynn (2019-04-12). "Flea Beetles of the Genus Altica: Altica spp. (Insecta: Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae): EENY-721/IN1238, 1/2019". EDIS. 2019 (2). doi:10.32473/edis-in1238-2019. ISSN 2576-0009.
- ^ a b Xue, Huai-Jun; Li, Wen-Zhu; Nie, Rui-E.; Yang, Xing-Ke (2011-11-15). "Recent Speciation in Three Closely Related Sympatric Specialists: Inferences Using Multi-Locus Sequence, Post-Mating Isolation and Endosymbiont Data". PLOS ONE. 6 (11): e27834. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...627834X. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0027834. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3217007. PMID 22110767.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Wei, Jing; Segraves, Kari A.; Li, Wen-Zhu; Yang, Xing-Ke; Xue, Huai-Jun (November 2020). "Gut bacterial communities and their contribution to performance of specialist Altica flea beetles". Microbial Ecology. 80 (4): 946–959. Bibcode:2020MicEc..80..946W. doi:10.1007/s00248-020-01590-x. ISSN 0095-3628. PMID 32880699.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Ren, Jing; Gunten, Natasha de; Konstantinov, Alexander S.; Vencl, Fredric V.; Ge, Siqin; Hu, David L. (2018/06). "Chewing Holes for Camouflage". Zoological Science. 35 (3): 199–207. doi:10.2108/zs170136. ISSN 0289-0003. PMID 29882497.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Xue, Huai-Jun; Zhang, Bin; Segraves, Kari A.; Wei, Jia-Ning; Nie, Rui-E.; Song, Ke-Qing; Liu, Jie; Li, Wen-Zhu; Yang, Xing-Ke (January 2016). "Contact cuticular hydrocarbons act as a mating cue to discriminate intraspecific variation in Altica flea beetles". Animal Behaviour. 111: 217–224. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.025. ISSN 0003-3472.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Zong, Le; Wu, Jianing; Yang, Pingping; Ren, Jing; Shi, Guanya; Ge, Siqin; Hu, David L. (2023-03-01). "Jumping of flea beetles onto inclined platforms". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 209 (2): 253–263. doi:10.1007/s00359-022-01567-w. ISSN 1432-1351. PMID 36166060.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ruan, Yongying; Konstantinov, Alexander S.; Shi, Guanya; Tao, Yi; Li, You; Johnson, Andrew J.; Luo, Xiaozhu; Zhang, Xinying; Zhang, Mengna; Wu, Jianing; Li, Wenzhu; Ge, Siqin; Yang, Xingke (2020-02-24). "The jumping mechanism of flea beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Alticini), its application to bionics and preliminary design for a robotic jumping leg". ZooKeys (915): 87–105. Bibcode:2020ZooK..915...87R. doi:10.3897/zookeys.915.38348. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 7052025. PMID 32148424.
- ^ Konstantinov A.S., Vandenberg N.J. 1996. Handbook of Palaearctic flea beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae). Contributions on Entomology, International, Vol. 1, Part 3. Gainesville, FL: Associated Publishers. P. 237–440.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Laroche, A.; DeClerck-Floate, R.A.; LeSage, L.; Floate, K.D.; Demeke, T. (June 1996). "AreAltica carduorumandAltica cirsicola(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) Different Species? Implications for the Release ofA. cirsicolafor the Biocontrol of Canada Thistle in Canada". Biological Control. 6 (3): 306–314. Bibcode:1996BiolC...6..306L. doi:10.1006/bcon.1996.0039. ISSN 1049-9644.
- ^ Romantsov, P. V. (2023-09-01). "New Data on the Fauna of Leaf Beetles (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) from the South of the Russian Far East". Entomological Review. 103 (6): 647–665. doi:10.1134/S0013873823060064. ISSN 1555-6689.
- ^ Jung, Sai-Ho; Oh, Hong-Shik (2012-03-01). "Insect Fauna of Yeongsil in Mt. Hallasan National Park (excluding Lepidoptera)". Journal of Korean Nature. 5 (1): 27–36. doi:10.7229/jkn.2012.5.1.027. ISSN 1976-8648.
- ^ Evans, James E. (1984). "Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense): A Literature Review of Management Practices". Natural Areas Journal. 4 (2): 11–21. ISSN 0885-8608. JSTOR 43910777.
- ^ Menzel, Florian; Blaimer, Bonnie B.; Schmitt, Thomas (2017-03-15). "How do cuticular hydrocarbons evolve? Physiological constraints and climatic and biotic selection pressures act on a complex functional trait". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 284 (1850): 20161727. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.1727. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 5360911. PMID 28298343.