Hammurabi
Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ˤAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is a healer," from ˤAmmu, "paternal kinsman," and Rāpi, "healer"; ca. 1810 BC – 1750 BC), also rarely transliterated Ammurapi, Hammurapi, or Khammurabi, was the sixth king of Babylon. He became the first king of the Babylonian Empire, building Babylon's hegemony over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against neighboring kingdoms.
Hammurabi is most widely known for promulgating the set of laws known as Hammurabi's code, one of the first written codes of law in recorded history. This achievement led to a reputation as a law-giver that still stands, resulting in Hammurabi's portrayal on a number of buildings of the United States government. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia by the time of his death, his successors were unable to hold on to the lands he had subdued.
Conqueror of Mesopotamia
Hammurabi was a member of the first dynasty of kings of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the throne from his father, Sin-muballit, in 1792 BC.[1] Babylon was one of the many ancient city-states that dotted the Mesopotamian plain and waged war on each other for control of fertile agricultural land.[2] Mesopotamia was a cultural melting pot, but Babylonian culture had gained a degree of importance among the literate classes throughout the middle east.[3] The kings who came before Hammurabi had begun to consolidate rule of central Meopotamia under Babylonian hegemony, and by the time of his reign had conquered the city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.[3] Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the midst of a complex geopolitical situation, surrounded by the more powerful kingdoms of Shamshi-Adad, Larsa, Eshnunna, and Elam.[4]
The first few decades of Hammurabi's reign were relatively peaceful, although the death of Shamshi-Adad led to the fragmentation of that northern empire, and Babylon was made comparatively stronger by this.[5] Hammurabi used the time to undertake a series of public works, both for defensive and religious purposes.[6] In 1766 BC, the powerful kingdom of Elam, which straddled important trade routes across the Zagros Mountains, invaded the Mesopotamian plain.[7] With allies among the plain states, Elam attacked and destroyed the empire of Eshnunna, destroying a number of cities and imposing its rule on portions of the plain for the first time.[8] In order to consolidate its position, Elam tried to start a war between Hammurabi's Babylonian kingdom and the kingdom of Larsa.[9] But when Hammurabi and the King of Larsa discovered this duplicity, they made an alliance and were able to crush the Elamites, although Larsa did not greatly contribute to the military effort.[9] Angered by Larsa's failure to come to his aid, Hammurabi turned immediately after the fall of Elam and conquered Larsa and the entirety of the southern Mesopotamian plain by 1763 BC.[10]
Hammurabi was assisted during the war in the south by allies from the north, and the absence of soldiers from the north led to unrest.[10] Continuing his expansionism, Hammurabi turned his attention north, quelling the unrest and soon after crushing Eshnunna.[11] Soon after, Babylonian armies conquered the remaining northern states, including Babylon's former ally Mari, although it is possible that the 'conquest' of Mari was a surrender without any actual conflict.[12][13] In just a few short years, Hammurabi had succeeded in uniting all of Mesopotamia under his rule.[13] Of the major city-states in the region, only Aleppo and Qatna to the west in Syria maintained their independence.[13]
Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated in the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters.[14] These letters give a glimpse into the daily trials of ruling an empire, from dealing with floods to mandating changes to a flawed calendar to taking care of Babylon's massive herds of livestock.[15] Hammurabi died and passed the reigns of the empire on to his son Samsu-Iluna in 1750 BC.[16]
Hammurabi's code of laws
see also Code of Hammurabi
Hammurabi is perhaps best known for his promulgation of a new code of Babylonian law–the Code of Hammurabi. This was written on a stela and placed in a public place, so that all could see it, although it is thought that few were literate. This stela was later removed as plunder to the Elamite capital Susa, where it was rediscovered in 1901 and now stands in the Louvre Museum. The code of Hammurabi contained 282 laws, written by scribes, on 12 tablets. Unlike earlier laws, it was written in Akkadian, the daily language of Babylon, and could therefore be read by any literate person in the city.[17] The structure of the laws is very specific, with each offense receiving a specified punishment. These punishments tended to be harsh by modern standards, with many offenses resulting in death or disfigurement. While the penalties of his laws may seem cruel to modern readers, the fact that he not only put into writing the laws of his kingdom, but attempted to make them a systematic whole, is considered an important step forward in the evolution of civilization. The code is also one of the earliest examples of the idea of presumption of innocence.[18]
Legacy and depictions
Under the rules of Hammurabi's successors, the Babylonian Empire was weakened by military pressure from the Hittites, who sacked Babylon around 1600.[19] However it was the Kassites who eventually conquered Babylon and ruled Mesopotamia for 400 years, adopting parts of the Babylonian culture, including Hammurabi's code of laws.[19]
Because of the reputation of Hammurabi as a lawgiver, Hammurabi is depicted in several U.S. government buildings. Hammurabi is one of the 23 lawgivers depicted in marble bas-reliefs in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives in the United States Capitol.[20] An image of Hammurabi receiving the Code of Hammurabi from the Babylonian sun god (probably Shamash) is depicted on the frieze on the south wall of the U.S. Supreme Court building.[21]
Notes
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Page 1
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Pages 1-2
- ^ a b Van de Mieroop, Page 3
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Pages 3-4
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Page 16
- ^ Arnold, Page 43
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Pages 15-16
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Page 17
- ^ a b Van de Mieroop, Page 18
- ^ a b Van de Mieroop, Page 31
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Pages 40-41
- ^ Van de Mieroop, Pages 54-55 and 64-65
- ^ a b c Arnold, Page 45
- ^ Breasted, Page 129
- ^ Breasted, Pages 129-130
- ^ Arnold, Page 42
- ^ Breasted, Page 141
- ^ All of the information in this paragraph is expalined in much more detail in Davies, W.W. (2003). Codes of Hammurabi and Moses: With Copious Comments, Index and Bible References. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766131246
- ^ a b Deblois, Page 19
- ^ "Relief Portraits of Lawgivers: Hammurabi." Architect of the Capitol. [1]
- ^ "Courtroom Friezes: North and South Walls: Information Sheet." Supreme Court of the United States. [2]
References
- Arnold, Bill T. (2005). Who Were the Babylonians? Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 9004130713
- Breasted, James Henry (2003). Ancient Time or a History of the Early World, Part 1. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766149463
- DeBlois, Lukas (1997). An Introduction to the Ancient World. Routledge Publishing. ISBN 0415127734
- Van De Mieroop, Marc (2005). King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405126604
- Babylonian Law. Britannica, 1911.
See also
- Ur-Nammu, another important creator of laws in Mesopotamian times.
External link
