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Photodisintegration (also called phototransmutation) is a quantum process in which an extremely high energy gamma ray is absorbed by atomic nucleus and causes it to enter an excited state, which immediately decays by emitting a subatomic particle. A single proton or neutron or an alpha particle^[1] is effectively knocked out of the nucleus by the incoming gamma ray. This process is essentially the reverse of nuclear fusion, where lighter elements at high temperatures combine together forming heavier elements and releasing energy. Photodisintegration is endothermic (energy absorbing) for atomic nuclei lighter than iron and sometimes exothermic (energy releasing) for atomic nuclei heavier than iron. Photodisintegration is responsible for the nucleosynthesis of at least some heavy, proton rich elements via p-process which takes place in supernovae.

Photodisintegration of deuterium

A photodisintegration reaction

The element Link does not exist. +
γ
→ The element Link does not exist. +
n
was used by James Chadwick and Maurice Goldhaber to measure the proton-neutron mass difference.^[2] This experiment proves that a neutron is not a bound state of a proton and an electron,^[3] as had been proposed by Ernest Rutherford.

Photodisintegration of beryllium

The photodisintegration of beryllium by gamma rays emitted by antimony-124 is used as a source for thermal neutrons.^[4]^[5]

Hypernovae

In explosions of very large stars (250 or more times the mass of earth's Sun), photodisintegration is a major factor in the supernova event. As the star reaches the end of its life, it reaches temperatures and pressures where photodisintegration's energy-absorbing effects temporarily reduce pressure and temperature within the star's core. This causes the core to start to collapse as energy is taken away by photodisintegration, and the collapsing core leads to the formation of a black hole. A portion of mass escapes in the form of relativistic jets, which could have "sprayed" the first metals into the universe.^[6]^[7]

Photofission

Photofission is a similar but distinct process, in which a nucleus, after absorbing a gamma ray, undergoes nuclear fission (splits into two fragments of nearly equal mass). Very high energy gamma rays have been shown to induce fission in elements as light as tin.

References

^ Clayton, Donald D. (1983). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. University of Chicago Press. p. 519. ISBN 9780226109534.
^ James Chadwick and Maurice Goldhaber, "A nuclear 'photo-effect': disintegration of the diplon by $\gamma$ rays", Nature,134, 237-38 (1934).
^ Derek Livesy,Atomic and Nuclear Physics, Blaisdell Publishing Company, Waltham, Mass. 1996, p. 347
^ Lalovic, M (1970). "The energy distribution of antimonyberyllium photoneutrons". Journal of Nuclear Energy. 24 (3): 123. Bibcode:1970JNuE...24..123L. doi:10.1016/0022-3107(70)90058-4.
^ Ahmed, Syed Naeem (2007-04-12). Physics and engineering of radiation detection. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-12-045581-2.
^ Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2001). "Pair-Instability Supernovae, Gravity Waves, and Gamma-Ray Transients". The Astrophysical Journal. 550: 372. arXiv:astro-ph/0007176. Bibcode:2001ApJ...550..372F. doi:10.1086/319719.
^ Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life". The Astrophysical Journal. 591: 288. arXiv:astro-ph/0212469. Bibcode:2003ApJ...591..288H. doi:10.1086/375341.

[1] Clayton, Donald D. (1983). Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis. University of Chicago Press. p. 519. ISBN 9780226109534.

[2] James Chadwick and Maurice Goldhaber, "A nuclear 'photo-effect': disintegration of the diplon by $\gamma$ rays", Nature,134, 237-38 (1934).

[3] Derek Livesy,Atomic and Nuclear Physics, Blaisdell Publishing Company, Waltham, Mass. 1996, p. 347

[4] Lalovic, M (1970). "The energy distribution of antimonyberyllium photoneutrons". Journal of Nuclear Energy. 24 (3): 123. Bibcode:1970JNuE...24..123L. doi:10.1016/0022-3107(70)90058-4.

[5] Ahmed, Syed Naeem (2007-04-12). Physics and engineering of radiation detection. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-12-045581-2.

[6] Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Heger, A. (2001). "Pair-Instability Supernovae, Gravity Waves, and Gamma-Ray Transients". The Astrophysical Journal. 550: 372. arXiv:astro-ph/0007176. Bibcode:2001ApJ...550..372F. doi:10.1086/319719.

[7] Heger, A.; Fryer, C. L.; Woosley, S. E.; Langer, N.; Hartmann, D. H. (2003). "How Massive Single Stars End Their Life". The Astrophysical Journal. 591: 288. arXiv:astro-ph/0212469. Bibcode:2003ApJ...591..288H. doi:10.1086/375341.

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 {{Refimprove|date=March 2011}}
-'''Photodisintegration''' (also called '''phototransmutation''') is a physical process in which an extremely high energy [[gamma ray]] is absorbed by [[atomic nucleus]] and causes it to enter an excited state, which immediately decays by emitting a subatomic particle. A single [[proton]] or [[neutron]] or an [[alpha particle]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Clayton|first=Donald D.|title=Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis|year=1983|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226109534|pages=519}}</ref> is effectively knocked out of the nucleus by the incoming gamma ray. This process is essentially the reverse of [[nuclear fusion]], where lighter elements at high temperatures combine together forming heavier elements and releasing energy. Photodisintegration is [[endothermic]] (energy absorbing) for atomic nuclei lighter than [[iron]] and sometimes [[exothermic]] (energy releasing) for atomic nuclei heavier than [[iron]].  Photodisintegration is responsible for the [[nucleosynthesis]] of at least some heavy, proton rich elements via [[p-process]] which takes place in [[supernova]]e.
+'''Photodisintegration''' (also called '''phototransmutation''') is a quantum process in which an extremely high energy  [[gamma ray]] is absorbed by [[atomic nucleus]] and causes it to enter an excited state, which immediately decays by emitting a subatomic particle. A single [[proton]] or [[neutron]] or an [[alpha particle]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Clayton|first=Donald D.|title=Principles of Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis|year=1983|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226109534|pages=519}}</ref> is effectively knocked out of the nucleus by the incoming gamma ray. This process is essentially the reverse of [[nuclear fusion]], where lighter elements at high temperatures combine together forming heavier elements and releasing energy. Photodisintegration is [[endothermic]] (energy absorbing) for atomic nuclei lighter than [[iron]] and sometimes [[exothermic]] (energy releasing) for atomic nuclei heavier than [[iron]].  Photodisintegration is responsible for the [[nucleosynthesis]] of at least some heavy, proton rich elements via [[p-process]] which takes place in [[supernova]]e.
 ==Photodisintegration of deuterium==
 A photodisintegration reaction
 :{| border="0"
-|- style="height:2em;"
-|{{Nuclide|Link|deuterium|2}}&nbsp;||+&nbsp;||{{Subatomic particle|link=yes|gamma}}&nbsp;||→&nbsp;||{{Nuclide|Link|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;||+&nbsp;||{{Subatomic particle|link=yes|neutron}}
+{{Nuclide|Link|deuterium|2}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Subatomic particle|link=yes|gamma}}&nbsp;→&nbsp;{{Nuclide|Link|hydrogen|1}}&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{Subatomic particle|link=yes|neutron}}
-|}
 was used by [[James Chadwick]] and [[Maurice Goldhaber]] to measure the proton-neutron mass difference.<ref>James Chadwick and Maurice Goldhaber, "A nuclear 'photo-effect': disintegration of the diplon by <math>\gamma </math> rays", ''Nature'','''134''', 237-38 (1934).</ref> This experiment proves that a neutron is not a bound state of a proton and an electron,<ref>Derek Livesy,''Atomic and Nuclear Physics'', Blaisdell Publishing Company, Waltham, Mass. 1996, p. 347</ref> as had been proposed by [[Ernest Rutherford]].