User:Aschin1/sandbox

Published material

Norplant

however in the beginning of Norplant's facilitation, doctors were not trained in removal procedures, which proved to cause further complications later on.

Information regarding the cost of removal (which was often ten times the cost of insertion) was withheld from certain patients, namely those within the black community. As a result, patients resorted to personal attempts at removing Norplant, often with improvised instruments that worsened their condition.

Women in science

According to salary figures reported in 1991, women earn anywhere between 83.6 percent to 87.5 percent that of a man's salary. An even greater disparity between men and women is the ongoing trend that women scientists with more experience are never as well-compensated as their male counterparts. The salary of a male engineer continues to experience growth as he gains experience whereas the female engineer sees her salary reach a plateau.

In the early 1980s, Margaret Rossiter presented two concepts for understanding the statistics behind women in science as well as the disadvantages women continued to suffer. She coined the terms "hierarchical segregation" and "territorial segregation." The former term describes the phenomenon in which the further one goes up the chain of command in the field, the smaller the presence of women. The latter describes the phenomenon in which women "cluster in scientific disciplines."

Criticisms

Scientific historian Londa Schiebinger questions the claim that Johanson's team made concerning Lucy's gender, citing that they wrote "the pelvic opening in hominids has to be proportionately larger in females than in males to allow for the birth of larger-braind infants." Contradicting this evidence was the timing of development of large hominid brains. Schiebinger continues to critique the assumptions made concerning Lucy's sex based upon the skeleton's size.

Lynda Birke

Lynda Birke is a biologist specializing in the development of young mammals as well as animal behavior. She is currently working at the University of Lancaster in the Institute for Women's Studies.

She graduated from the University of Sussex and received a master's in biology as well as a doctorate in animal behavior, both at Sussex.

Much of her work in the field of feminist science studies has been critiques of biological determinism.

Books

• Biology, Bodies and Feminism. Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
• Common Science? Women, Science and Knowledge. Co-authored with J. Barr. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998.
• Reinventing Biology: Respect for Life and the Creation of Knowledge. Co-authored with Ruth Hubbard. Indiana University Press, 1995.
• Feminism, Animals and Science: the Naming of the Shrew. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1994.
• Tomorrow's Child: Reproductive Technologies in the 90s. Co-authored with S. Himmelweit and G. Vines. London: Virago, 1990. Spanish translation: El Nino del Manana:Tecnologias Reproductoras en los Anos 90. Barcelona: Edicion Porredes Corredor, 1992.
• Women, Feminism and Biology: The Feminist Challenge. Wheatsheaf, 1986.

Articles

• "Animals, Becoming," in Animal Others: On Ethics, Ontology and Animal Life. Ed. P.Steeves. Coathored with L. Parisi. SUNY Press, 1999.
• Various entries to Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. Ed. L.Code. Routledge, 1999.
• "Ecofeminism." Entry for Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare. Co-authored with L.Gruen. Ed. by M.Bekoff and C A. Meaney. Greenwood Press,1998, pp. 48-49.
• "Seeking Knowledge: Muslim Women and Their Perceptions of Science." Coauthored with R. Whitworth. Women's Studies International Forum Vol. 21 (1998): 147-159.
• "The heart of the Matter: Animal Bodies, Ethics and Species Boundaries." Coauthored with Michael, M. Society and Animals Vol. 6 (1998): 245-262.
• "Biological Sciences," in Companion to Feminist Philosophy. Ed. by A. Jaggar and I.Young. Blackwell, 1998, pp. 194-204.
• "The Broken heart," in Vital Signs. Ed. by M. Shildrick and J. Price. Edinburgh University Press, 1998, pp.197-224.
• "Hybrids, Rights and Their Proliferation." Co-authored with Michael, M. Animal Issues Vol. 2 (1998): 1-20.
• "Women, Science and Adult Education - Towards a Feminist Curriculum." Co-authored with Barr, J. in Science and the Construction of Women. Ed. by M. Maynard. UCL Press, 1997.
• "Science and Animals- Or, Why Cyril Won't Win the Nobel Prize." Animal Issues Vol. 1 (1997): 45-55.
• "Enviromental Challenge." Coauthored with Wemelsfelder, F. in Animal Welfare. Ed. by M. Appleby and B. Hughes. Wallingford CABI,1997.
• "The Black Hole? Women's Studies, Science and Technology." Co-authored with Henry, M. in Introducing Women's Studies. Ed. by D. Richardson and V. Robinson. Macmillan, 1997.
• "Born Queer? Lesbians Interrogate Biology," in Straight Studies Modified. Ed. by S. Andermahr and G. Griffin. Cassell 1997.
• "Reporting animal use in scientific papers," Co-authored with Smith, J., and Sadler, D. in Laboratory Animals.1997, pp. 312-317.
• "Animals and Biological Determinism," in Feminism and Sexuality: A Reader. Ed. by S. Jackson. Open University, 1996.
• "Animal Experiments and Ethical Debate." Co-authored with Michael, M. Forum for Applied Research and Public Policy Vol. 11 (1996): 35-38.
• "On keeping a respectful distance.," in Reinventing Biology. Ed. by L. Birke and R. Hubbard. Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 75-88.
• "Raising the profile of welfare: scientists and their use of animals." Co-authored with Michael, M. Anthrozoos Vol. 8 (1995): 90-99.
• "Animal Experiments: Scientific Uncertainty and Public Unease." Co-authored with Michael, M. Science as Culture Vol. 5 (1995): 248-276
• "Feminism, science and animals.," in Women and Animals. Ed. by C. Adams and S. Kappeler. Duke University Press,1995
• "Animals in Experimental Reports: the Rhetoric of Science." Co-authored with Smith, J. Society and AnimalsVol. 3 (1995).
• "Women, science and adult Education: Towards a feminist Curriculum?" Co-authored with Barr, J. Scottish Gender and Education Research Network, Conference Proceedings.1994, pp. 35-40
• "Unzipping the genes." Perversions Vol. 1 (1994).
• "Science and morality in animal experiments: demarcating the core set." Co-authored with Michael, M. Social Studies of Science Vol. 24 (1994): 81-95.
• "Interventions in hostile territory," in Stirring It: Uniting Theory and Practice. Ed. by G. Griffin and S. Rai. Falmer Press, 1994.
• "Women, Science and Adult Education: Towards a Feminist Curriculum?" Co-authored with Barr, J. Women's Studies International Forum1994, pp. 473-483
• "Accounting for animal experiments: identity and disreputable 'others'." Co-authored with Michael,M. Science, technology and human values Vol. 19 (1994): 189-204.
• "The meanings of meat." Society and Animals Vol. 1 (1993): 191-207.
• "Nazi ideologies and the boundaries of being human." Anthrozoos Vol. 6 (1993): 72-75.
• "Bringing science to women?" Co-authored with Dunlop, C. Adults Learning (March 1993).
• "Detecting genetic diseases: prenatal screening and its problems." Co-authored with S.Himmelweit and G.Vines. in Inventing Women. Ed. G. Kirkup and L. Keller. Open Polity/Open University, 1992, pp. 145-161.
• "In pursuit of difference: scientific studies of women and men," in Inventing Women: Science, Technology and Gender. Ed. by G. Kirkup and L.S. Keller. Polity/Open University, 1992, pp. 81-102.
• "Transforming biology.," in Knowing Women: Feminism and Knowledge. Ed. by H. Crowley and S. Himmelweit. Polity/Open University, 1992, pp. 66-77.
• "Inside science for women: common sense or science?" J. Further and Higher Education Vol. 16 (1992): 18-30.
• "Life as we have known it: feminism and the biology of gender," in Science and Sensibility. Ed. by M. Benjamin. Blackwell, 1991, pp. 243-263.
• "Science, feminism and animal natures: I: extending the boundaries." Women's Studies International Forum Vol. 14 (1991): 443-449.
• "Science, feminism and animal natures: II: feminist critiques and the place of animals in science." Women's Studies International Forum Vol. 14 (1991): 451-458.
• "Geschlundt und Sexualitat." Zeitschrift fur Sexualforschung Vol. 4 (1991): 109-118.
• "Maternal discrimination and the development of sex differences in exploratory behaviour of Spiny Mice Acomys cahirinus." Co-authored with and Sadler, D. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Vol. 43B (1991): 403-430.
• "Adult education and the public understanding of science." J. Further & Higher Education Vol. 15 (1990): 15-23.

Enforcement

United States

The government provided many incentives for black women at the poverty line to utilize Norplant. In many cases, Norplant was a requirement by many employers before they would hire potential employees.

Controversy

Sarah Baartman has been the subject of much research, even after her death. Anne Fausto-Sterling argues that the mere study of Sarah Baartman as someone outside of the norm is in fact a form of objectification. Why do we even ask the question regarding the size of Baartman's genitalia?

Feminist science studies

A relatively new field which advocates the integration (versus traditional segregation) of the sciences and the humanities. The purpose of feminist science studies is to illuminate the inherent bias that is present in traditional fields of science. The main argument that feminists bring forth is that science is mistakenly viewed as the objective "truth" in that the scientist as an observer merely records what he sees in nature. This model of the progression of science is thought to be outdated and misleading by feminists.

In feminist science studies, students are taught that scientists regard nature through subjective lenses. These lenses are, in fact, the metaphors that society propagates. Instead of science being an "objective truth" that trickles down into society, feminist science studies argue that society places scientists in a predetermined mindset that influences the interpretation of data and research. In other words, scientists arrive at conclusions that they want to see, and do not necessarily express the reality of what is being viewed.

Feminist sciences

• Archaeology
• Primatology (in the 80s.)

List of prominent contributors

• Anne Fausto-Sterling
• Emily Martin
• Londa Schiebinger
• Lynda Birke

Research

Articles on feminist and women's studies on JSTOR.

Articles by Anne Fausto-Sterling and Emily Martin.