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Inclusive classroom

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Further information: Inclusion (education)

An inclusive classroom is a term used within American pedagogy to describe a classroom in which all students, irrespective of their abilities or skills, are welcomed holistically. It is built on the notion that being in a non-segregated classroom will better prepare special-needs students for later life. In the United States, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 guaranteed civil rights to disabled people, though inclusion of disabled students progressed slowly until the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, after which almost half of US students with disabilities were soon in general classrooms.

This has placed a considerable burden on teachers and school boards, who are often unprepared and suffer from stress and frustration, affecting the success of programs. An advocated solution is co-teaching, doubling teaching staff to support an inclusive classroom.

History of inclusion

Prior to inclusion.

Prior to the 1970s, most schools in the United States had non-inclusive policies. Students with disabilities were often not permitted to attend public schools as it was believed that they were unable to be educated.[1] Children who were deaf, blind, or had emotional or intellectual disabilities were instead sent to special facilities or institutions. In the late 1960s, almost 200,000 people with significant disabilities lived in state institutions that provided basic needs like food, shelter, and clothing.[2] Those students with mild disabilities were segregated from the rest of the school, where only specially trained teachers could teach them. It was thought that integrating these students into regular classrooms would cause teachers to invest too much time with them due to their unique educational needs, which would then leave other students with little attention. Thus, the presence of students with disabilities was believed to be a burden and a nuisance to the "regular" students.[2]

A few US states began to pass legislation that allowed, but did not require, school districts to begin educating students with certain types of disabilities. However, it was not widespread. In the 1950s, Edward H. Stullken, president and member of the Illinois Council of Exceptional Children, began to question the need to segregate students with disabilities from the public schools.[2] This soon led to the rise of parent activists who challenged the courts. As a result, special education was expanded into public schools.[3] After a successful court case in Pennsylvania, the state law was changed to acknowledge that it had the obligation to provide a free, appropriate education regardless of the disability.[2] This case eventually led the United States to the 1975 creation of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA), which paved the way for all special education programs.[4][better source needed]

Timeline of inclusion

Inclusion in the United States began with the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which guaranteed civil rights to all disabled people and required accommodations for disabled students in schools.[3] The 1975 EAHCA, and its 1986 and 1992 amendments, guaranteed educational rights from any institution receiving funding, and encouraged states to develop programs for individuals with disabilities.[3] In 1997, the EAHCA was revised as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA),[5][better source needed] and made it mandatory for all schools to develop and provide a free and appropriate public education for all children, in the least-restrictive environment possible. This included the use of Individual Education Plans (IEPs) for all special-education students. These requirements marked the beginning of full inclusion.[6] The 1997 reauthorization of IDEA guaranteed more educational access for students with disabilities.

A 2004 reauthorization of IDEA aligned this act with the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which supported standards-based education reform.[1] This reauthorization included appropriate technology and more funding specifically for special education. By the early 2000s, almost half of students with disabilities were included in the general classroom.[2] As of 2013, inclusion is still strongly endorsed by the National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE) and is widely used in most classrooms across the United States.[7] Although there are still controversies and debates on whether inclusion is the best practice for students with disabilities, it has become the norm in most schools in the United States.

Classification of students

Inclusive classrooms have students with disabilities, behavioral issues, social issues, personal issues, intellectual deficits, cognitive impairments, and physical diversities.[8] This means every classroom could be considered inclusive. The goal is for the teacher to teach each student with similar effort, not seeing the disability. Differentiated instruction is extremely important to maintain an inclusive classroom.

Disabilities

IDEA defines a child with a disability as having intellectual disabilities, a hearing impairment (including deafness), a speech or language impairment, a visual impairment, a serious emotional disturbance, an orthopedic impairment, autism, traumatic brain injury, another health impairment, a specific learning disability, deaf-blindness, or multiple disabilities.[9] In many cases, students that are covered under IDEA (2004) have IEPs or 504 plans.[10] These students are typically paired with a paraprofessional in the classroom. This person is called also called an aide, paraeducator, or teaching assistant.[11] Research shows that students performed higher when the paraprofessional was trained in inclusive classroom management.[12]

Behavioral and social issues

Behavioral and social problems range from talking out of turn to acts of violence. Response to intervention (RTI) and schoolwide positive behavior interventions and supports (SWPBIS) models are two ways that schools are improving education for students with this type of issue.[13][14]

Screening tools commonly used include:[13][15]

  • Behavioral Assessment Scale for Children Two (BASC-2): Behavior and Emotional Screening Scale (BESS)
  • Brief Academic Competence Evaluation Scales System (BACESS)
  • Schoolwide Information System (SWIS)
  • Social Skills Improvement System (SSIS)
  • Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS)
  • Student Internalizing Behavior Screening Scale (SIBSS)
  • Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (SSBD)
  • End-of-Year or Grade-to-Grade Transitional Guides

Personal issues

Students with personal issues include those with different spiritual identities, sexual identities, gender identities, religions, and cultures.[16] Teachers are encouraged to increase representation of these groups in the curriculum through literature and other materials.[17] However increased representation of students with disabilities is not associated with improved outcomes.

Cognitive impairment

There are many types of cognitive impairments that include attention and memory, language, executive function, problem solving and reasoning, and social function impairments.[18] Many of these students will have IEPs. These students may require extra time for homework and tests, alternative testing sites, repeated instructions, and the reduction of multiple-choice answers on exams.

Multicultural diversities

Physical diversities would entail students of all races, cultures, and ethnicities. As English-language learners work on skills to become fluent in English, they also become an important focus of inclusive classrooms. Diversity should be intertwined into the classroom curriculum to teach all students effectively. Community-referenced instruction, a curriculum approach that allows educators to design lessons with multiple roles, challenges, and opportunities for learning, is a tool used to benefit all students in inclusive classrooms.[19] Work experiences, research terms, and service learning are some examples of instruction within these inclusive classrooms.[19]

Intellectual giftedness

According to 20 USCS[expand acronym] § 7801(27), "gifted and talented" students are those who give evidence of high achievement capability – in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields – and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.[9]

A study found gifted students in suburban schools outperformed gifted students in urban schools.[20] Institutional shortcomings, such as poor curriculums, unrelatable teachers, and general opportunity gaps, are believed to be the reasoning behind urban school students' underperformance.[20]

Theories and approaches

There are various lesson plans, layouts, and approaches to inclusive teaching that can be applied to the various scenarios and backgrounds of students.

The first step requires that teachers make an effort to understand the students who require inclusive education. As stated by Cathy LeDoux, "The consensus among the literature has been that general education teachers are inadequately prepared to work with special needs students and, therefore, not prepared for inclusion."[21] Therefore, misunderstanding, prejudice, and isolation can result. Teachers should attempt to understand students with special needs by asking a series of questions:

  • What challenges do special education students present for general education teachers in inclusive classrooms?
  • What are the perceived needs of general education teachers in relation to accommodating special education students in their classrooms?
  • In what ways can administration support general education teachers in accommodating special education students?[21]

Co-teaching

Main article: Co-teaching

One approach is to implement co-teaching, the process where two teachers work together in order to teach students within the same classroom.[22] In the case of inclusive teaching, a general teacher usually does not have the skill nor the understanding that is needed to relate to students with disabilities. Thus, a special education teacher is used to understand the problems faced by students with special needs. In this approach, general education teachers and special education teachers need to be effective communicators to create lesson plans, homework exercises, and communication methods that revolve around the inclusion of students with special needs.[22]

When a sound co-teaching system is in effect, there are several instructional models that can be used. One model is referred to as "selecting manageable texts" whereby teachers match students to reading materials based upon whether the student needs special assistance due to special needs.[22] Readability, vocabulary complexity, interest level, presence of prior knowledge, and the use of text enhancement are factors that are considered when matching students with texts.[22] Specifically, book length, chapter length, and whether or not the book will maintain a student's attention are considered.[22] Co-teaching can also help match a student's skills and abilities related to inclusive teaching to an IEP, a program developed for every student with special needs.

Individualized education plans

Main article: Individualized Education Program

An individualized education program (IEP) is a document that outlines the educational needs and goals of a student with a disability, and describes the programs and services that a school district will provide to help the student make educational progress.[23] It defines based upon research on education and assessment of student, an approach to teaching a student with special needs and may help integrate that student into a general classroom, in advancement of a student's educational progress. An IEP may determine the proper placement of a student in inclusive education through tests, studies, and interviews with counselors and family members. Based upon the arrangement of homework assignments, team projects, and basic communication with other students and teachers, students can then learn what works best for them. Despite a student's physical, emotional, or psychological condition, a teacher must commit to understand a student's well-being in order to provide necessary and contextually appropriate support.[24] Inclusive teaching can be made easier for teachers when systems are put into place that lay the groundwork.

Support services

It can be difficult to determine the role of school officials, educators, and counselors when practicing inclusive education, especially when students with special needs are a rarity in school environments. Uncertainty can be detrimental in determining how to begin any aspect of inclusive education, whether that be ideas, lesson plans, or educational and psychological inquiries. One way to overcome this is by coordinating all of these stages into a progressive smooth-running unit. Questions arise as to who students should visit first, what questions should be posed to students and their parents, what subjects should be presented to students in order to determine which they will perform well in. It is not proper to function without preparation when it comes to inclusive education. Therefore, it is best to create "a set of principles to guide support services",[24] even if they are imperfect. These principles should be based on the social, educational, and psychological functions of disabled students in order to best serve their educational and personal goals. Principles will consolidate processes and remove confusion related to school systems. They can also clarify the roles of educators, counselors, and administrators in terms of what each can specifically do for students with special needs.

Critiques and attitudes

Overview

There are conflicting attitudes regarding inclusive classrooms and teaching special needs students within mainstream classrooms.[further explanation needed] One study argued, "inclusive practices allow students to become full members of a classroom community, thus allowing them to develop both academically and socially".[25][relevant?] Critiques of universal inclusion argue the practice ignores the needs of the student, and many students' needs cannot reasonably be met within general education settings.[26] Further, they argue that the movement for fully inclusive classrooms priorities group values and ideologies over evidence.[27] Additionally, many full-inclusion advocates, including Paula Kluth, are also proponents of pseudoscientific facilitated communication practices.[28]

Positive and negative attitudes amongst teachers can affect the success of inclusive classrooms. Factors that influence teacher attitudes include: teacher differences, classroom learning environments, adequacy of support, stress, and willingness to include.[29] Findings of a paper published in Learning Environments Research suggest that educators who were receptive and assumed direct authority had a better chance of achieving success.[29] However, teacher attitudes alone do not determine the appropriateness of an education placement for meeting educational needs. Students with severe, sensory, or multiple impairments may be less likely to receive appropriate educational services in an inclusive classroom, regardless of teacher attitude. These students require intensive, effective, evidence-based interventions targeted at their unique needs.

Negative teacher attitudes

Negative attitudes towards inclusion are linked to teachers' frustrations towards their own abilities to teach in an inclusive classroom. While professional development workshops are found to positively impact teachers' abilities to teach student with specific learning disorders, they are not always offered.[25]

In addition to frustration, teachers' feelings of fear are linked to not knowing "how best to incorporate students with disabilities into the regular education environment",[25] which serves as a barrier in preventing "full inclusion".[25]

It was found teachers who were less inclined to include special needs students in their classrooms also expressed greater concern for students' educational success. This paradox leads teachers "to be less proactive in effectively supporting them".[29]

Positive teacher attitudes

It has also been suggested that positive teacher attitudes are dependent upon the classroom teachers' beliefs about implementing inclusive educational policy and practice into the classroom.[29] Since the mere acceptance of inclusion is likely to affect the teachers' commitment to its implementation, teachers' beliefs and attitudes are critical to ensure success.[25]

Other factors that influence positive teacher attitudes toward inclusion are pre-service training (i.e., educational or general education courses).[30] It has been suggested that "pre-service training may be the optimum time to address educators' concerns and change any negative attitudes about inclusive education".[30] When teachers expand their knowledge on special education and the needs of students with special disabilities, they shape their perspectives and confidence in teaching an inclusive classroom.[30]

Negative attitudes towards inclusive practices are "attributed to a lack of understanding and a fear of what is unknown".[25]

References

  1. ^ a b Spaulding, Lucinda S.; Pratt, Sharon M. (2015). "A Review and Analysis of the History of Special Education and Disability Advocacy in the United States". American Educational History Journal. 42 (1): 91–109. ISSN 1535-0584.
  2. ^ a b c d e Torreno, Stephanie (2010-03-21). "History of Inclusion & Improvement in Educating Students with Disabilities". Bright Hub Education. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
  3. ^ a b c "A Short History of Special Education | All Education Schools". AllEducationSchools.com. 2018-03-06. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
  4. ^ "Education for All Handicapped Children Act", Wikipedia, 2019-02-15, retrieved 2019-03-14 – Can't use Wikipedia as a source!
  5. ^ "Individuals with Disabilities Education Act", Wikipedia, 2018-12-17, retrieved 2019-03-14 – Can't use Wikipedia as a source!
  6. ^ "Brain-Friendly Strategies for the Inclusion Classroom". www.ascd.org. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
  7. ^ Ford, Jeremy (2013-01-01). "Educating Students with Learning Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms". Electronic Journal for Inclusive Education. 3 (1). ISSN 1545-0473.
  8. ^ Brown, Elinor L. (2002-01-01). "Mrs. Boyd's Fifth-Grade Inclusive Classroom: A Study of Multicultural Teaching Strategies". Urban Education. 37 (1): 126–141. doi:10.1177/0042085902371008. ISSN 0042-0859.
  9. ^ a b "20 U.S. Code § 1400 - Short title; findings; purposes". LII / Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
  10. ^ Broderick, Alicia; Mehta-Parekh, Heeral; Reid, D. Kim (2005). "Differentiating Instruction for Disabled Students in Inclusive Classrooms". Theory into Practice. 44 (3): 194–202. doi:10.1207/s15430421tip4403_3. JSTOR 3496998.
  11. ^ Downing, June E.; Ryndak, Diane L.; Clark, Denise (2000). "Paraeducators in Inclusive Classrooms". Remedial and Special Education. 21 (3): 171–181. doi:10.1177/074193250002100308. ISSN 0741-9325.
  12. ^ Koegel, Lynn Kern; Harrower, Joshua K.; Koegel, Robert L. (1999). "Support for Children with Developmental Disabilities in Full Inclusion Classrooms Through Self-Management". Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. 1 (1): 26–34. doi:10.1177/109830079900100104. ISSN 1098-3007.
  13. ^ a b Walker, Bridget A. (2010). "Effective Schoolwide Screening to Identify Students at Risk for Social and Behavioral Problems". Intervention in School and Clinic. 46 (2): 104–110. doi:10.1177/1053451210374989. ISSN 1053-4512.
  14. ^ Harlacher, Jason E.; Rodriguez, Billie Jo (2018). An Educator's Guide to Schoolwide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: Integrating All Three Tiers. Bloomington, IN: Marzano Research. ISBN 9780990345879.
  15. ^ Weber, Chris (2018). Behavior: The Forgotten Curriculum: An RTI Approach for Nurturing Essential Life Skills. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree. pp. 41–44. ISBN 9781943874323.
  16. ^ Castro, E., & Dockendroff, K. (2017). "Expanding the circle. Creating an inclusive environment in higher education for lgbtq students and studies ed. by john c. hawley (review)". The Review of Higher Education. 40 (3): 467–471. doi:10.1353/rhe.2017.0016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Dodge, Autumn M.; Crutcher, Paul A. (2015). "Inclusive Classrooms for LGBTQ Students: Using Linked Text Sets to Challenge the Hegemonic "Single Story"". Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy. 59 (1): 95–105. doi:10.1002/jaal.433. ISSN 1081-3004.
  18. ^ Grabinger, R. Scott; Aplin, Cary; Ponnappa-Brenner, Gitanjali (2008). "Supporting Learners with Cognitive Impairments in Online Environments". TechTrends: Linking Research and Practice to Improve Learning. 52 (1): 63–69. doi:10.1007/s11528-008-0114-4. ISSN 8756-3894.
  19. ^ a b Kluth, Paula (2000). "Community-Referenced Learning and the Inclusive Classroom". Remedial and Special Education. 21 (1): 19–26. doi:10.1177/074193250002100103. ISSN 0741-9325.
  20. ^ a b Kurt, L., Chenault, K. (2017). "Gifted and at risk: A cross-comparison of gifted student growth and solutions for urban schools". Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education. 13: 1–12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b LeDoux, Cathy; Graves, Shanna L.; Burt, Winona (2012). "Meeting the Needs of Special Education Students in Inclusion Classrooms". Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals. ISSN 2325-7466.
  22. ^ a b c d e Swicegood, Philip; Miller, Melinda (2015). "Co-Teaching Students with Mild to Moderate Disabilities Using Literature-Based Reading Instruction". Texas Journal of Literacy Education. 3 (2): 69–80. ISSN 2374-7404.
  23. ^ "Individualized Education Programs - Special Education Research". U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  24. ^ a b "Giangreco Resources: Paraprofessional support of students with disabilities". www.uvm.edu. Retrieved 2018-12-10.
  25. ^ a b c d e f Shady, Sandra A.; Luther, Vicki L.; Richman, Laila J. (2013). "Teaching the Teachers: A Study of Perceived Professional Development Needs of Educators to Enhance Positive Attitudes toward Inclusive Practices". Education Research and Perspectives. 40 (1): 169–191. ISSN 1446-0017.
  26. ^ Kauffman, James M.; Hallahan, Daniel P. (1995-00-00). The Illusion of Full Inclusion: A Comprehensive Critique of a Current Special Education Bandwagon. PRO-ED, Inc. ISBN 978-0-89079-612-2. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Kavale, Kenneth A.; Mostert, Mark P. (December 2003). "River of Ideology, Islands of Evidence". Exceptionality. 11 (4): 191–208. doi:10.1207/s15327035ex1104_1. ISSN 0936-2835.
  28. ^ Kluth, Paula Marie. (1998). The impact of facilitated communication on the educational lives of students: three case studies.
  29. ^ a b c d Monsen, Jeremy J.; Ewing, Donna L.; Kwoka, Maria (2014). "Teachers' Attitudes towards Inclusion, Perceived Adequacy of Support and Classroom Learning Environment". Learning Environments Research. 17 (1): 113–126. doi:10.1007/s10984-013-9144-8. ISSN 1387-1579.
  30. ^ a b c Ajuwon, Paul M.; Lechtenberger, DeAnn; Griffin-Shirley, Nora; Sokolosky, Stephanie; Zhou, Li; Mullins, Frank E. (2012). "General Education Pre-Service Teachers Perceptions of Including Students with Disabilities in Their Classrooms". International Journal of Special Education. 27 (3): 100–107. ISSN 0827-3383.
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