View source for Africa (Roman province)

{{Short description|Roman province in north Africa}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=April 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}
{{Infobox Former Subdivision
|native_name = Africa Proconsularis
|conventional_long_name =
|common_name = Africa
|subdivision = [[Roman province|Province]]
|nation = the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire]]
|era = [[Classical antiquity]]-[[Late antiquity]]-[[Early Middle Ages]]
|capital = [[Zama Regia]], [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]], then [[Roman Carthage|Carthago]]
|title_leader =
|image_map = Roman Empire - Africa Proconsularis (125 AD).svg
|image_map_caption = The province of Africa within the Roman Empire
|life_span = 146 BC–AD 439 <br/> 534–698
|year_start = 146 BC
|event_start = Established after the [[Third Punic War]]
|event1      = [[Capture of Carthage (439)|Vandal Conquest of Carthage]]
|date_event1 = 439 AD
|event2      = Byzantine reconquest by [[Vandalic War]]
|date_event2 = 534
|event3      = Reorganization into the [[Exarchate of Africa|Exarchate]]
|date_event3 = 591
|year_end = 698
|event_end = [[Battle of Carthage (698)|Fall of Carthage]]
|today = [[Tunisia]]<br/>[[Libya]]<br/>[[Algeria]]
|p1 = Ancient Carthage
|flag_p1 = Symbol of Tanit.png
|s1 = Vandal Kingdom
|flag_s1 = Vandales.png
|s2 = Ifriqiya
|flag_s2 = White_flag_3_to_2.svg
}}
'''Africa''' was a [[Roman province]] on the northern coast of the continent of [[Africa]]. It was established in 146 BC, following the [[Roman Republic]]'s conquest of [[ancient Carthage|Carthage]] in the [[Third Punic War]]. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day [[Tunisia]], the northeast of [[Algeria]], and the coast of western [[Libya]] along the [[Gulf of Sidra]]. The territory was originally and still is inhabited by [[Berbers]], known in Latin as the ''Mauri,'' indigenous to all of North Africa west of Egypt. In the [[9th century BC]], Semitic-speaking [[Phoenicia]]ns from [[West Asia]] built settlements along the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to facilitate shipping. Carthage, rising to prominence in the 8th century BC, became the predominant of these.

Africa was one of the wealthiest provinces in the western part of the [[Roman Empire]], second only to [[Roman Italy|Italy]]. In addition to [[Carthage]], other large settlements in the province were [[Hadrumetum]] (modern [[Sousse]], Tunisia), the capital of [[Byzacena]], and [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]], [[Algeria]]).

[[File:Roman Empire 125 general map.SVG|thumb|The Roman empire in the time of [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–138 AD), showing, in northern Africa, the [[senatorial province]] of '''Africa Proconsularis''' (E. Algeria/Tunisia/Tripolitania). 1 [[Roman legion|legion]] deployed in 125.]]

== History ==
{{Further|History of Roman-era Tunisia}}
Rome's first province in northern Africa was established by the [[Roman Republic]] in 146 BC, following its conquest of [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]] by [[Scipio Aemilianus]]<ref name=EB1911>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Africa, Roman |volume=1 |page=359 |first=Ernest C. F. |last=Babelon}}</ref> in the [[Third Punic War]]. 

[[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]], which had fought on the side of the Romans in the war,<ref name=EB1911/> was formed as the administrative capital. The remaining territory was left in the domain of the Berber [[Numidia]]n [[client king]] [[Massinissa]]. At this time, the Roman policy in Africa was simply to prevent another great power from rising on the [[Maghreb|Northwest Africa]].
[[File:Roman_Province_of_Africa_in_146_BC.png|thumb|Roman Province of Africa in 146 BC.<ref name=Harris1989p144>{{cite book|author-link=William V. Harris|first=William V. |last=Harris|chapter=Roman expansion in the West|editor1=J. A. Crook|editor2=F. W. Walbank|editor2-link=F. W. Walbank|editor3= M. W. Frederiksen|editor4-link=Robert Maxwell Ogilvie|editor4=R. M. Ogilvie|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|title-link=The Cambridge Ancient History|volume=VIII, Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 B.C.|publisher= Cambridge University Press|date= 1989|page=144}}</ref>]]
In 118 BC, the Numidian prince [[Jugurtha]] attempted to reunify the smaller kingdoms. However, upon his death, much of Jugurtha's territory was placed in the control of the Berber Mauritanian client king [[Bocchus I|Bocchus]]; and, by that time, the romanisation of Africa was firmly rooted.

During [[Caesar's civil war]], Caesar created a new African province from territory taken from the Numidians. The original province was called ''Africa vetus'' with the newer province suffixed ''nova''. But during the [[Second Triumvirate]], the two provinces were unified, possibly in 35&nbsp;BC, in consequence of border conflicts: governors of the province won three triumphs between 34 and 28&nbsp;BC. Further expansion of the province continued under the emperor Augustus, with conflicts recorded through to AD&nbsp;6.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Whittaker |first=CR |chapter=Roman Africa: Augustus to Vespasian |title=The Augustan empire, 43 BC–AD 69 |series=Cambridge Ancient History |volume=10 |edition=2nd |date=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC |editor-last1=Bowman |editor-first1=Alan K |display-editors=etal |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-26430-8 |pages=590–91 }}</ref><ref>Older scholarship dated the unification of ''Africa nova'' and ''vetus'' to 27&nbsp;BC. This is no longer believed. {{Cite journal |last1=Fishwick |first1=Duncan |last2=Shaw |first2=Brent D |date=1977 |title=The formation of Africa proconsularis |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4476024 |journal=Hermes |volume=105 |issue=3 |pages=369–380 |jstor=4476024 |issn=0018-0777}}</ref> By 27&nbsp;BC, Africa was assigned as one of the senatorial provinces in the [[Constitutional reforms of Augustus|Augustan settlements]] and eventually became known as ''Africa proconsularis'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fishwick |first=Duncan |date=1996 |title=On the origins of Africa proconsularis, III : the era of the Cereres again |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/antaf_0066-4871_1996_num_32_1_1248 |journal=Antiquités africaines |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=13–36 |doi=10.3406/antaf.1996.1248}}</ref> as it was ruled by a [[proconsul]] rather than a legate of the emperor.

After [[Diocletian]]'s administrative reforms, it was split into ''Africa Zeugitana'' (which retained the name ''Africa Proconsularis'', as it was governed by a [[proconsul]]) in the north, ''[[Byzacena|Africa Byzacena]]'' (corresponding to eastern [[Tunisia]]) to its south, and ''Africa Tripolitania'' (corresponding to southern Tunisia and northwest [[Libya]]) to the south and southeast of ''Africa Byzacena'', all of which were part of the ''[[Diocese of Africa|Dioecesis Africae]]''. Old Africa (''Africa Vetus''), which generally includes the areas mentioned, was also known by the Romans (Pliny) as ''Africa propria'',<ref>{{cite book|last=Leo Africanus|author-link=Leo Africanus|title=History and Description of Africa |editor=Robert Brown |volume=1 |publisher=New York Franklin |translator=John Pory|year=1974|page=22 (A General Description of all Africa)|language=en|oclc=830857464}} (reprinted from London 1896)</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa-Roman-territory#ref249098 Africa – Roman Territory, North Africa] ([[Encyclopaedia Britannica]])</ref> of which [[Carthage]] was the capital.<ref>{{cite book|last=Macbean|first=A.|author-link=Alexander Macbean|title=A Dictionary of Ancient Geography: Explaining the Local Appellations in Sacred, Grecian, and Roman History |publisher=G. Robinson |year=1773|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EqwBAAAAYAAJ_2/page/n97 7]|language=en|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_EqwBAAAAYAAJ_2 |quote=Carthago, inis, Romans.|oclc=6478604}}</ref>

The region remained a part of the Roman empire until the Germanic migrations of the 5th century. The [[Vandals]] crossed into Northwest Africa from Spain in 429 [[Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa|and overran the area by 439]] and founded their own kingdom, including [[Sicily]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]] and the [[Balearic Islands|Balearics]]. The Vandals controlled the country as a warrior-elite but faced strong resistance from the native Berbers. The Vandals also persecuted [[Chalcedonian]] [[Roman Africans]] and Berbers, as the Vandals were adherents of [[Arianism]] (the semi-trinitarian doctrines of [[Arius]], a priest of Egypt). Towards the end of the 5th century, the Vandal state fell into decline, abandoning most of the interior territories to the Mauri and other Berber tribes of the region.

In AD 533, Emperor [[Justinian]], using a Vandal dynastic dispute as pretext, sent an army under the general [[Belisarius]] to recover Africa. In a [[Vandalic War|short campaign]], Belisarius defeated the Vandals, entered [[Carthage]] in triumph and re-established Roman rule over the province. The restored Roman administration was successful in fending off the attacks of the [[Amazigh]] desert tribes, and by means of an extensive fortification network managed to extend its rule once again to the interior.

The [[Maghreb|northwest African]] provinces, together with [[Spania|the Roman possessions in Spain]], were grouped into the [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa]], this time separate from [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy]], and transferred to [[Exarchate of Africa]] by Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]. The Exarchate prospered, and from it resulted the overthrow of the emperor [[Phocas]] by [[Heraclius]] in 610. Heraclius briefly considered moving the imperial capital from [[Constantinople]] to Carthage.

After 640, the exarchate managed to stave off the Muslim Conquest, but in 698, the Muslim Umayyad army from [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]] [[Battle of Carthage (698)|sacked Carthage]] and [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|conquered the Exarchate]], ending Roman and Christian rule in Northwest Africa.

=== Timetable ===
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="9" bgcolor="lightgrey" font-size="200%" | Evolution of the province of Africa

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | Pre-Roman Conquest
| colspan="3" | [[Ancient Carthage|Carthage]]
| Eastern Numidia ([[Massylii]])
| colspan="2" |Western Numidia ([[Masaesyli]])
| [[Mauretania]]

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 146 BC – 105 BC
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''Africa'''
| colspan="3" | [[Numidia]]
| Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 105 BC – 46 BC
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa
| Eastern Numidia
| Western Numidia
| colspan="2" | Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 46 BC – 40 BC 
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''Africa Vetus'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''[[Africa Nova]]'''
| Western Numidia
| Eastern Mauretania
| Western Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 40 BC – 30 BC 
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa Vetus
| colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa Nova
| Eastern Mauretania
| Western Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 30 BC – 25 BC
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa Vetus
| colspan="2" | Numidia
| colspan="2" | Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 25 BC – 41 AD
| colspan="4" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''Africa Proconsularis'''
| colspan="3" | Mauretania

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 41 AD – 193 AD
| colspan="4" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa Proconsularis
| colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''[[Mauretania Caesariensis]]'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''[[Mauretania Tingitana]]'''

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | 193 AD – 314 AD
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Africa Proconsularis
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''Numidia'''
| colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Mauretania Caesariensis
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Mauretania Tingitana

|-
| bgcolor="lightgrey" | since 314 AD
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" |'''[[Tripolitania]]'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" |'''[[Byzacena|Africa Byzacena]]'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" |'''Africa Zeugitana'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Numidia
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | '''[[Mauretania Sitifensis]]'''
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Mauretania Caesariensis
| bgcolor="#FFB6B6" | Mauretania Tingitana

|}

;Legend
{{legend|#FFB6B6|Roman 'direct' control, i.e. excluding vassal/client states.}}
* Mauretania Tingitana belonged to [[Diocese of Spain]] under [[Praetorian prefecture of Gaul]], rather than [[Diocese of Africa]] under [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy]], from Diocletianic provincial reforms to Vandalic conquest, i.e. during the rule of [[Western Roman Empire]] in a broader sense.

== Roman Africans ==
{{Main|Roman Africans}}
[[File:eljem2.jpg|thumb|250px|The amphitheatre of Thysdrus (modern [[El Djem]])]]

The Roman military presence of Northwest Africa was relatively small, consisting of about 28,000 troops and auxiliaries in Numidia and the two Mauretanian provinces. Starting in the 2nd century AD, these garrisons were manned mostly by local inhabitants. A sizable [[Latin]]-speaking population developed that was multinational in background, sharing the northwest African region with those speaking [[Punic]] and [[Berber languages]].<ref name="Abun-Nasr1987">{{cite book|last=Abun-Nasr|first=Jamil M. |title=A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC|year=1987|publisher=University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-33767-0|pages=35–37}}</ref> Imperial security forces began to be drawn from the local population, including the Berbers.

Abun-Nasr, in his ''A History of the Maghrib'', said that "What made the Berbers accept the Roman way of life all the more readily was that the Romans, though a colonizing people who captured their lands by the might of their arms, did not display any racial exclusiveness and were remarkably tolerant of [[Early History of Tunisia#Ancient Berber religion|Berber religious cults]], be they indigenous or [[History of Punic era Tunisia#Punic religion|borrowed from the Carthaginians]]. However, the Roman territory in Africa was unevenly penetrated by Roman culture. Pockets of non-Romanized Berbers continued to exist throughout the Roman period, even such as in the rural areas of the deeply romanised regions of Tunisia and Numidia."

By the end of the Western Roman Empire nearly all of the Maghreb was fully [[Romanization (cultural)|romanised]], according to Mommsen in his ''The Provinces of the Roman Empire''. Roman Africans enjoyed a high level of prosperity. This prosperity (and romanisation) touched partially even the populations living outside the [[Roman limes]] (mainly the [[Garamantes]] and the [[Getuli]]), who were reached with [[Roman expeditions to Sub-Saharan Africa]].

{{blockquote|The willing acceptance of Roman citizenship by members of the ruling class in African cities produced such Roman Africans as the comic poet Terence, the rhetorician Fronto of Cirta, the jurist Salvius Julianus of Hadrumetum, the novelist Apuleius of Madauros, the emperor Septimius Severus of Leptis Magna, the Christians Tertullian and Cyprian of Carthage, and Arnobius of Sicca and his pupil Lactantius; the angelic doctor Augustine of Thagaste, the epigrammatist Luxorius of Vandal Carthage, and perhaps the biographer Suetonius, and the poet Dracontius.|[[Paul MacKendrick]], ''The North African Stones Speak (1969)'', UNC Press, 2000, p.326}}

== Economy ==
[[File:As-Hadrian-Africa-RIC 0841,As.jpg|thumb|250px|Roman [[As (Roman coin)|as]] of [[Hadrian]], 136 AD. An allegory of Africa wearing an elephant headdress is depicted on the reverse.]]
[[File:Juba II Mauretanien.JPG|thumb|[[Juba II]], king of [[Mauretania]].]]
[[File:Cirta mosaic.jpg|thumb|''Triumph of Poseidon and Amphitrite'' showing the couple [[thiasos#Other thiasoi|in procession]], detail of a vast [[Roman mosaic|mosaic]] from [[Cirta]], Roman Africa ({{circa|315}}–325 AD, now at the [[Louvre]])]]
[[File:African Red Slip vessels.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Berbers|Berber]] Red Slip flagons and vases, 2nd–4th centuries]]
[[File:Roman pottery African Red Slip.jpg|thumb|250px|A typical plain [[Berbers|berber]] Red Slip dish with simple rouletted decoration, 4th century]]
The prosperity of most towns depended on agriculture. Called the "granary of the empire", Northwest Africa, according to one estimate, produced one million tons of cereals each year{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}, one-quarter of which was exported. Additional crops included beans, figs, grapes, and other fruits. By the 2nd century, olive oil rivaled cereals as an export item{{Citation needed|date=November 2011}}. In addition to the cultivation of slaves, and the capture and transporting of exotic wild animals, the principal production and exports included the textiles, marble, wine, timber, livestock, pottery such as [[African Red Slip]], and wool.

The incorporation of colonial cities into the Roman Empire brought an unparalleled degree of urbanization to vast areas of territory, particularly in Northwest Africa. This level of rapid urbanization had a structural impact on the town economy, and artisan production in Roman cities became closely tied to the agrarian spheres of production. As Rome's population grew, so did her demand for Northwest African produce. This flourishing trade allowed the Northwest African provinces to increase artisan production in rapidly developing cities, making them highly organized urban centers. Many Roman cities shared both consumer and producer model city aspects, as artisanal activity was directly related to the economic role cities played in long-distance trade networks.<ref name="Wilson2013">{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Andrew|title=Urban Production in the Roman World: the View from North Africa|journal=Papers of the British School at Rome|volume=70|year=2013|pages=231–273|issn=0068-2462|doi=10.1017/S0068246200002166|s2cid=128875968}}</ref>

The urban population became increasingly engaged in the craft and service sectors and less in agrarian employment, until a significant portion of the town's vitality came from the sale or trade of products through middlemen to markets in areas both rural and abroad. The changes that occurred in the infrastructure for agricultural processing, like olive oil and wine production, as trade continued to develop both cities and commerce directly influenced the volume of artisan production. The scale, quality, and demand for these products reached its acme in Roman Northwest Africa.<ref name="Wilson2013" />

===Pottery production===
{{Main|African Red Slip}}

The Northwest African provinces spanned across regions rich with olive plantations and potters' clay sources, which led to the early development of fine [[Ancient Roman pottery]], especially [[African Red Slip]] ''[[terra sigillata]]'' tableware and clay [[oil lamp]] manufacture, as a crucial industry. Lamps provided the most common form of illumination in Rome. They were used for public and private lighting, as votive offerings in temples, lighting at festivals, and as grave goods. As the craft developed and increased in quality and craftsmanship, the Northwest African creations began to rival their Italian and Grecian models and eventually surpassed them in merit and in demand.<ref name="Baratte1994">{{cite book|last=Baratte|first=François |editor-last=Brouillet|editor-first= Monique Seefried|title=From Hannibal to Saint Augustine: Ancient Art of North Africa from the Musée Du Louvre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YnZgQgAACAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Michael C. Carlos Museum, Emory University|isbn=978-0-9638169-1-7}}</ref>{{rp| 82–83, 129–130}}

The innovative use of molds around the 1st century BC allowed for a much greater variety of shapes and decorative style, and the skill of the lamp maker was demonstrated by the quality of the decoration found typically on the flat top of the lamp, or discus, and the outer rim, or shoulder. The production process took several stages. The decorative motifs were created using small individual molds, and were then added as appliqué to a plain archetype of the lamp. The embellished lamp was then used to make two plaster half molds, one lower half and one upper half mold, and multiple copies were then able to be mass-produced. Decorative motifs ranged according to the lamp's function and to popular taste.<ref name="Baratte1994" />

Ornate patterning of squares and circles were later added to the shoulder with a stylus, as well as palm trees, small fish, animals, and flower patterns. The discus was reserved for conventional scenes of gods, goddesses, mythological subjects, scenes from daily life, erotic scenes, and natural images. The strongly Christian identity of post-Roman society in Northwest Africa is exemplified in the later instances of Northwest African lamps, on which scenes of Christian images like saints, crosses, and biblical figures became commonly articulated topics. Traditional mythological symbols had enduring popularity as well, which can be traced back to Northwest Africa's Punic heritage. Many of the early Northwest African lamps that have been excavated, especially those of high quality, have the name of the manufacturer inscribed on the base, which gives evidence of a highly competitive and thriving local market that developed early and continued to influence and bolster the economy.<ref name="Baratte1994" />

==== African Terra Sigillata ====
After a period of artisanal, political, and social decline in the 3rd century AD, lamp-making revived and accelerated. The introduction of fine local red-fired clays in the late 4th century triggered this revival. [[African Red Slip]] ware (ARS), or African Terra Sigillata, revolutionized the pottery and lamp-making industry.<ref name="Baratte1994" />{{rp|129–130}}

ARS ware was produced from the last third of the 1st century AD onwards, and was of major importance in the mid-to-late Roman periods. Famous in antiquity as "fine" or high-quality tableware, it was distributed both regionally and throughout the Mediterranean basin along well-established and heavily trafficked trade routes. Northwest Africa's economy flourished as its products were dispersed and demand for its products dramatically increased.<ref name="MackensenSchneider2015">{{cite journal|last1=Mackensen|first1=Michael|last2=Schneider|first2=Gerwulf|title=Production centres of African Red Slip ware (2nd-3rd c.) in northern and central Tunisia: archaeological provenance and reference groups based on chemical analysis|journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology|volume=19|year=2015|pages=163–190|issn=1047-7594|doi=10.1017/S1047759400006322|s2cid=232344623}}</ref>

Initially, the ARS lamp designs imitated the simple design of 3rd- to 4th-century courseware lamps, often with globules on the shoulder or with fluted walls. More ornate designs appeared before the early 5th century as demand spurred on the creative process. The development and widespread distribution of ARS finewares marks the most distinctive phase of Northwest African pottery-making.<ref name="Baratte1994" />{{rp|129}}

These characteristic pottery lamps were produced in large quantities by efficiently organized production centers with large-scale manufacturing abilities. They can be attributed to specific pottery-making centers in northern and central Tunisia by way of chemical analysis, allowing archeologists to trace distribution patterns from their source through the regions and across the Mediterranean.<ref name="MackensenSchneider2015" /> Some major ARS centers in central Tunisia are Sidi Marzouk Tounsi, Henchir el-Guellal (Djilma), and Henchir es-Srira, all of which have ARS lamp artifacts attributed to them by the microscopic chemical makeup of the clay fabric as well as macroscopic style prevalent in that region.

Local pottery markets fueled the economy of not only the towns, but the entire region and supported markets abroad. Certain vessel forms, fabrics, and decorative techniques like rouletting, appliqué, and stamped décor, are specific for a certain region and even for a certain pottery center. If neither form nor decoration of the material is identifiable, it is possible to trace an item using chemical analysis, not just to a certain region but even to its place of production by comparing its makeup to a matrix of important northeastern and central Tunisian potteries.

===Forests, economy, and religion===
Pine forests, with a herb layer of grasses, were widespread and economically significant, especially in the humid zone, the northeast of modern Tunisia (the [[Geography of Tunisia|areas known as the Tell and parts of the Dorsal mountains]]). Many areas are described as ''saltus'', land used for non-agricultural exploitation. Timber, [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] (used to line [[amphorae]] and waterproof ships), firewood, [[pine nut]]s, and charcoal would all have been produced. [[Grazing]] was also practiced on forested land. Olive plantations were also widespread, usually on land previously forested, and the [[pomace]] residue after oil extraction was also locally important as fuel. The temple of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] [[Silvanus (mythology)|Silvius]], a god of commerce related to forests, in [[Dougga]], and many lesser monuments elsewhere, are evidence of the importance of forests to local trade.<ref>Reforesting Roman Africa: Woodland Resources, Worship, and Colonial Erasures. Matthew M. McCarty. The Journal of Roman Studies, Volume 112, November 2022, pp. 105 - 141. Published online 04 July 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0075435822000338 https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman-studies/article/reforesting-roman-africa-woodland-resources-worship-and-colonial-erasures/474CBE535CDD521775945765400D8393</ref>

== Christianity ==
{{main|Early African Church|Church of Carthage|Archdiocese of Carthage}}

==See also==
* [[List of Roman governors of Africa]]
* [[Ifriqiya]]
* [[African Romance]]
* ''[[Lex Manciana]]''
* [[Fossatum Africae]]
* [[Roman limes]]
* [[Roman roads in Africa]]
* [[Kingdom of Africa]]
* [[Byzantine North Africa]]

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|last=Leunissen|first=Paul M. M. |title=Konsuln und Konsulare in der Zeit von Commodus bis Severus Alexander (180-235 n. Chr.): prosopographische Untersuchungen zur senatorischen Elite im römischen Kaiserreich|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pv07AAAAMAAJ|year=1989|publisher=J.C. Gieben|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-90-6053-028-3}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
* Orietta Dora Cordovana, ''Segni e immagini del potere tra antico e tardoantico: I Severi e la provincia Africa proconsularis''. Seconda edizione rivista ed aggiornata (Catania: Prisma, 2007) (Testi e studi di storia antica)
* Elizabeth Fentress, "Romanizing the Berbers," ''Past & Present'', 190 (2006), pp.&nbsp;3–33.
* Erich S. Gruen, ''Rethinking the Other in Antiquity'' (Princeton, PUP, 2010), pp.&nbsp;197–222.
* {{cite book |last1=Hitchner |first1=R. Bruce |title=A companion to North Africa in antiquity |date=2022 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc |location=Hoboken, NJ |isbn=9781444350012}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hoffmann-Salz |first=Julia |title=Die wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen der römischen Eroberung: vergleichende Untersuchungen der Provinzen Hispania Tarraconensis, Africa Proconsularis und Syria |date=2011 |publisher=F. Steiner Verlag |place=Stuttgart |lang=de |isbn=978-3-515-09847-2 |pages=154–293 }}
* Lennox Manton, ''Roman North Africa'' (1988).
*{{cite book |last1=Mattingly |first1=David J. |title=Between Sahara and sea: Africa in the Roman Empire |date=2023 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472133451}}
* Susan Raven, ''Rome in Africa'', 3rd ed. (London, 1993).
* Duane R. Roller, ''The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene: Royal Scholarship on Rome's African Frontier'' (New York and London, Routledge, 2003).
* John Stewart, ''African states and rulers'' (2006)
* Dick Whittaker, "Ethnic discourses on the frontiers of Roman Africa", in Ton Derks, Nico Roymans (ed.), ''Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition'' (Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2009) (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies, 13), pp.&nbsp;189–206.
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.unrv.com/provinces/africa.php Roman Africa at www.unrv.com]

{{Roman provinces AD 117}}
{{Late Roman Provinces}}
{{Roman Governors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Africa (Roman Province)}}
[[Category:Africa (Roman province)| ]]
[[Category:Roman Libya|*]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC establishments]]
[[Category:2nd-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic]]
[[Category:5th-century disestablishments]]
[[Category:5th-century disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:140s BC establishments]]
[[Category:146 BC]]
[[Category:Algeria in the Roman era]]
[[Category:Libya in the Roman era]]
[[Category:Provinces of the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Roman provinces in Africa]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 5th century]]
[[Category:States and territories established in the 2nd century BC]]
[[Category:Tunisia in the Roman era]]