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Age of acquisition

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Age of acquisition (AOA or AoA) is a psycholinguistic variable referring to the age at which a word is typically learned. For example, the word 'penguin' is typically learned at a younger age than the word 'albatross'. Studies in psycholinguistics suggest that age of acquisition has an effect on the speed of reading words.[1][2] The findings have demonstrated that early-acquired words are processed more quickly than later-acquired words.[3][4][5] It is a particularly strong variable in predicting the speed of picture naming.[6][7] It has been generally found that words that are more frequent, shorter, more familiar and refer to concrete concepts are learned earlier than the counterparts in simple words [8] and compound words, together with their respective lexemes.[9][10] In addition, the AoA effect has been demonstrated in several languages [11][12] [13]and in bilingual speakers.[14][15]

Norms

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Sets of normative values for age of acquisition for large sets of words have been developed.

  • Kuperman, Stadthagen-Gonzalez, and Brysbaert [16]
  • Gilhooly and Logie.[17]
  • Morrison et al.[18]
  • Juhasz et al.[19]
  • Sereno et al.[20]

Relation to other variables

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It has been disputed whether age of acquisition has an effect on word tasks on its own or by virtue of its covariance with other variables such as word frequency.[21] Alternatively, it has been suggested that the age of acquisition is related to the fact that an earlier learned word has been encountered more often.[22] These issues were partially resolved in an article by Ghyselinck, Lewis and Brysbaert.[23][further explanation needed]

Alternatively there have been discussions of the effect that the age of acquisition has on memory.[24][25][26][27] The influence of AoA on recognition memory is likely to be present, using a pure and mixed lists.[24][25][26] However, the AoA effect is not likely to be present in free recall tasks.[25] However, there is evidence indicating that the AoA is present in free recall in compound words.[27] One explanation for this is that disyllabic words such as compound words have more irregular spelling-to-sound correspondence, thus semantics is more likely to take place, while monomorphemic items have a more regular spelling-to-sound correspondence, thus semantics is less likely to take place.[28]

Theories on the age-of-acquisition effects

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Representation theory

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The AoA effects could be attributed to incremental construction of semantic representations.[29][30] Early-acquired words develop stronger connections with other words as they have richer semantic representations, and are thus more resistant to cognitive impairment.[31]

Mapping theory

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The AoA effects result from reduced neuroplasticity during the learning of mappings between representations over time.[32][33] Early-acquired words use the rich resources available in the system, while late-acquired words need to fitted into the system already tuned to early-acquired words. Consequently, there is a processing cost for late-acquired words, especially for those having mapping structures that are different to early-acquired words.[34][35] Opaque or deep languages such as English are more likely to show AoA effects, as a result of this mapping between letter and sound being irregular in opaque languages, leading to a larger AoA effects, whereas transparent or shallow languages such as Spanish are more likely to demonstrate small or no AoA effects, as the mapping between letter and sound is regular and late-acquired words can benefit from the structure created by early-acquired words.[36]

Integrated theory

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This theory argued that the AoA effect could be explained by both the representation theory and mapping theory such that the AoA effect is observed as a consequence of incremental learning, resulting from both the construction of representations and changing plasticity in the learning system.[37][38][39][40] Early-acquired words use the rich resources available in the system to develop stronger connections with newer words, thus developing richer semantic representations, while late-acquired words have to tune to early-acquired words and thus have fewer connections to other words. In turn, the late-acquired word not only has a different mapping structure but also a processing cost.

Chang et al. [41] argued that in contrast to written words, which has an often arbitrary relationship between letters and sounds, the strong connection between phonology and semantics is crucial for reading. The relationship between sound production and perception are more consistent, allowing readers to leverage their spoken language skills to decode written words. Children exploit this phonology-semantics link to read words, encountered before formal literacy instructions, using the indirect route to sound words and access their meanings. As a result, the regularity of phonology provides a significant advantage over written language systems. This inherent consistency contributes to he effectiveness of phonological decoding strategies in reading. As a result, the link between mapping and semantics highlights the value of the integrated theory.

However, we need to consider orthographic transparency. Within opaque languages, the AoA can differ depending on the level of imageability (i.e. how imageable an item is). If the item has high imageability, the AoA effect is more likely to be small or non-existent, whereas if the item has low imageability, the AoA effect is more likely to be large. In transparent languages such as Spanish, if the item has low imageability, the AoA effect will not be evident, whereas if the item has high imageability, the AoA will be demonstrated.[42]

References

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  1. ^ "Age-of-Acquisition Effects in Word and Picture Identification".
  2. ^ Elsherif, M. M.; Preece, E.; Catling, J. C. (2023-01-09). "Age-of-acquisition effects: A literature review". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 49 (5): 812–847. doi:10.1037/xlm0001215. ISSN 1939-1285. PMID 36622701. S2CID 255545091.
  3. ^ Meschyan, Gayane; Hernandez, Arturo (2002-03-01). "Age of acquisition and word frequency: Determinants of object-naming speed and accuracy". Memory & Cognition. 30 (2): 262–269. doi:10.3758/BF03195287. ISSN 1532-5946. PMID 12035888.
  4. ^ Morrison, Catriona M.; Ellis, Andrew W.; Quinlan, Philip T. (1992-11-01). "Age of acquisition, not word frequency, affects object naming, not object recognition". Memory & Cognition. 20 (6): 705–714. doi:10.3758/BF03202720. ISSN 1532-5946. PMID 1435273.
  5. ^ Catling, J. C.; Elsherif, M. M. (2020-09-01). "The hunt for the age of acquisition effect: It's in the links!". Acta Psychologica. 209: 103138. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103138. ISSN 0001-6918. PMID 32805435. S2CID 221165538.
  6. ^ Brysbaert, Marc; Ellis, Andrew W. (2016-11-01). "Aphasia and age of acquisition: are early-learned words more resilient?". Aphasiology. 30 (11): 1240–1263. doi:10.1080/02687038.2015.1106439. ISSN 0268-7038. S2CID 4830641.
  7. ^ Perret, Cyril; Bonin, Patrick (2019-12-01). "Which variables should be controlled for to investigate picture naming in adults? A Bayesian meta-analysis". Behavior Research Methods. 51 (6): 2533–2545. doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1100-1. ISSN 1554-3528. PMID 30066263.
  8. ^ "CogLab: Age of Acquisition". coglab.cengage.com. Retrieved 2017-05-16.
  9. ^ Elsherif, M.M.; Catling, J.C.; Frisson, S. (May 2020). "Two words as one: A multi-naming investigation of the age-of-acquisition effect in compound-word processing". Memory & Cognition. 48 (4): 511–525. doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00986-6. ISSN 0090-502X. PMC 7242258. PMID 31755026.
  10. ^ Elsherif, M.M.; Catling, J.C. (2024-10-08). "How Age of Acquisition Affects Compound Word Recognition". Scientific Studies of Reading: 1–28. doi:10.1080/10888438.2024.2409630. ISSN 1088-8438.
  11. ^ Chang, Ya-Ning; Lee, Chia-Ying (2020-12-01). "Age of acquisition effects on traditional Chinese character naming and lexical decision". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 27 (6): 1317–1324. doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01787-8. ISSN 1531-5320. PMC 7704508. PMID 32789580.
  12. ^ Łuniewska, Magdalena; Haman, Ewa; Armon-Lotem, Sharon; Etenkowski, Bartłomiej; Southwood, Frenette; Anđelković, Darinka; Blom, Elma; Boerma, Tessel; Chiat, Shula; de Abreu, Pascale Engel; Gagarina, Natalia (2016-09-01). "Ratings of age of acquisition of 299 words across 25 languages: Is there a cross-linguistic order of words?". Behavior Research Methods. 48 (3): 1154–1177. doi:10.3758/s13428-015-0636-6. ISSN 1554-3528. PMID 26276517. S2CID 39703538.
  13. ^ Wilson, Maximiliano A.; Ellis, Andrew W.; Burani, Cristina (2012-03-01). "Age-of-acquisition affects word naming in Italian only when stress is irregular". Acta Psychologica. 139 (3): 417–424. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.12.012. ISSN 0001-6918.
  14. ^ Izura, Cristina; Ellis, Andrew W (2004-02-01). "Age of acquisition effects in translation judgement tasks". Journal of Memory and Language. 50 (2): 165–181. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2003.09.004. ISSN 0749-596X.
  15. ^ Dirix, Nicolas; Duyck, Wouter (2017-12-01). "The first- and second-language age of acquisition effect in first- and second-language book reading". Journal of Memory and Language. 97: 103–120. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2017.07.012. ISSN 0749-596X. S2CID 140116885.
  16. ^ "Age-of-acquisition ratings for 30 thousand English words". springer.com.
  17. ^ Gilhooly, K. J. (1980). "Age-of-acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words". Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation. 12 (4): 395–427. doi:10.3758/BF03201693.
  18. ^ Morrison, Catriona M. (August 1997). "Age of Acquisition Norms for a Large Set of Object Names and Their Relation to Adult Estimates and Other Variables". The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A. 50 (3): 528–559. doi:10.1080/027249897392017. S2CID 145696157.
  19. ^ Juhasz, Barbara J.; Lai, Yun-Hsuan; Woodcock, Michelle L. (December 2015). "A database of 629 English compound words: ratings of familiarity, lexeme meaning dominance, semantic transparency, age of acquisition, imageability, and sensory experience". Behavior Research Methods. 47 (4): 1004–1019. doi:10.3758/s13428-014-0523-6. ISSN 1554-3528. PMID 25361864.
  20. ^ Scott, Graham G.; Keitel, Anne; Becirspahic, Marc; Yao, Bo; Sereno, Sara C. (2019-06-01). "The Glasgow Norms: Ratings of 5,500 words on nine scales". Behavior Research Methods. 51 (3): 1258–1270. doi:10.3758/s13428-018-1099-3. ISSN 1554-3528. PMC 6538586. PMID 30206797.
  21. ^ "Age-of-Acquisition Effects in Word and Picture Identification".
  22. ^ "Re-evaluating age-of-acquisition effects: are they simply cumulative-frequency effects?" (PDF).
  23. ^ Ghyselinck, Mandy (January 2004). "Age of acquisition and the cumulative-frequency hypothesis: A review of the literature and a new multi-task investigation". Acta Psychologica. 115 (1): 43–67. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2003.11.002. PMID 14734241.
  24. ^ a b Macmillan, Molly B.; Neath, Ian; Surprenant, Aimeé M. (2021-07-01). "Re-assessing age of acquisition effects in recognition, free recall, and serial recall". Memory & Cognition. 49 (5): 939–954. doi:10.3758/s13421-021-01137-6. ISSN 1532-5946. PMID 33558995. S2CID 231869671.
  25. ^ a b c Lau, Mabel C; Goh, Winston D; Yap, Melvin J (2018-10-01). "An item-level analysis of lexical-semantic effects in free recall and recognition memory using the megastudy approach". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 71 (10): 2207–2222. doi:10.1177/1747021817739834. ISSN 1747-0218. PMID 30226433. S2CID 52292000.
  26. ^ a b Catling, J. C.; Pymont, C.; Johnston, R. A.; Elsherif, M. M.; Clark, R.; Kendall, E. (2021-05-28). "Age of acquisition effects in recognition without identification tasks". Memory. 29 (5): 662–674. doi:10.1080/09658211.2021.1931695. ISSN 0965-8211. PMID 34028339. S2CID 235169015.
  27. ^ a b Elsherif, Mahmoud M.; Catling, Jonathan C. (2023-10-01). "Are two words recalled or recognised as one? How age-of-acquisition affects memory for compound words". Journal of Memory and Language. 132: 104449. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2023.104449. ISSN 0749-596X.
  28. ^ Cortese, Michael J.; Schock, Jocelyn (2013-05-01). "Imageability and age of acquisition effects in disyllabic word recognition". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 66 (5): 946–972. doi:10.1080/17470218.2012.722660. ISSN 1747-0218. PMID 23030642. S2CID 27216655.
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  30. ^ Steyvers, Mark; Tenenbaum, Joshua B. (2005). "The Large-Scale Structure of Semantic Networks: Statistical Analyses and a Model of Semantic Growth". Cognitive Science. 29 (1): 41–78. arXiv:cond-mat/0110012. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2901_3. ISSN 1551-6709. PMID 21702767. S2CID 6000627.
  31. ^ Brysbaert, Marc; Ellis, Andrew W. (2016-11-01). "Aphasia and age of acquisition: are early-learned words more resilient?". Aphasiology. 30 (11): 1240–1263. doi:10.1080/02687038.2015.1106439. ISSN 0268-7038. S2CID 4830641.
  32. ^ Ellis, Andrew W.; Lambon Ralph, Matthew A. (2000). "Age of acquisition effects in adult lexical processing reflect loss of plasticity in maturing systems: Insights from connectionist networks". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 26 (5): 1103–1123. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.26.5.1103. ISSN 1939-1285. PMID 11009247.
  33. ^ Monaghan, Padraic; Ellis, Andrew W. (2010-11-01). "Modeling reading development: Cumulative, incremental learning in a computational model of word naming". Journal of Memory and Language. 63 (4): 506–525. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2010.08.003. ISSN 0749-596X.
  34. ^ Lambon Ralph, Matthew A.; Ehsan, Sheeba (2006-05-01). "Age of acquisition effects depend on the mapping between representations and the frequency of occurrence: Empirical and computational evidence". Visual Cognition. 13 (7–8): 928–948. doi:10.1080/13506280544000110. hdl:1854/LU-599273. ISSN 1350-6285. S2CID 53633875.
  35. ^ Zevin, Jason D.; Seidenberg, Mark S. (2004-01-01). "Age-of-acquisition effects in reading aloud: Tests of cumulative frequency and frequency trajectory". Memory & Cognition. 32 (1): 31–38. doi:10.3758/BF03195818. ISSN 1532-5946. PMID 15078042.
  36. ^ Elsherif, M. M.; Preece, E.; Catling, J. C. (2023-01-09). "Age-of-acquisition effects: A literature review". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 49 (5): 812–847. doi:10.1037/xlm0001215. ISSN 1939-1285. PMID 36622701. S2CID 255545091.
  37. ^ Brysbaert, Marc; Ellis, Andrew W. (2016-11-01). "Aphasia and age of acquisition: are early-learned words more resilient?". Aphasiology. 30 (11): 1240–1263. doi:10.1080/02687038.2015.1106439. ISSN 0268-7038. S2CID 4830641.
  38. ^ Dirix, Nicolas; Duyck, Wouter (2017-12-01). "An eye movement corpus study of the age-of-acquisition effect". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 24 (6): 1915–1921. doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1233-8. ISSN 1531-5320. PMID 28116701. S2CID 22669248.
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  40. ^ Elsherif, M.M.; Catling, J.C. (2021-12-09). "Age of acquisition effects on the decomposition of compound words". Journal of Cognitive Psychology. 34 (3): 325–338. doi:10.1080/20445911.2021.2013246. ISSN 2044-5911. S2CID 245017698.
  41. ^ Chang, Ya-Ning; Monaghan, Padraic; Welbourne, Stephen (2019-10-01). "A computational model of reading across development: Effects of literacy onset on language processing". Journal of Memory and Language. 108: 104025. doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.05.003. ISSN 0749-596X.
  42. ^ Elsherif, M. M.; Preece, E.; Catling, J. C. (2023-01-09). "Age-of-acquisition effects: A literature review". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 49 (5): 812–847. doi:10.1037/xlm0001215. ISSN 1939-1285. PMID 36622701. S2CID 255545091.
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