View source for Analects

{{Short description|Confucian philosophical text}}
{{Infobox book
| name           = Analects
| title_orig     = 論語
| orig_lang_code = zh
| image          = Rongo Analects 02.jpg
| image_size     = 350px
| caption        = A page from the ''Analects''
| author         = Disciples of [[Confucius]]
| country        = [[China]]
| language       = [[Classical Chinese]]
| native_wikisource = 論語
| wikisource     = Analects
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = Analects (Chinese characters).svg
| piccap = "Analects" written using [[seal script]] (top), as well as modern [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]] (middle) and [[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified]] (bottom) [[regular script]] character forms
| picupright = 0.45
| t = {{linktext|論語}}
| s = {{linktext|论语}}
| l = 'Selected sayings',{{sfnp|Van Norden|2002|p=12}} 'Edited conversations'{{sfnp|Knechtges|Shih|2010|p=645}}
| p = Lúnyǔ
| bpmf = ㄌㄨㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄩˇ
| w = {{tone superscript|Lun2-yü3}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|l|wen|2|.|yu|3}}
| gr = Luenyeu
| myr = Lwúnyǔ
| mps = Luényǔ
| showflag = p
| wuu = Lén-nyû
| poj = Lūn-gú
| tl = Lūn-gú
| j = Leon4-jyu5
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|l|eon|4|.|j|yu|5}}
| y = Lèuhn-yúh
| mc = lwin-ngjó
| oc-bs = *{{IPA|[r]u[n] ŋ(r)aʔ}}
| qn = Luận ngữ
| chuhan = 論語
| kanji = 論語
| kana = ろんご
| romaji = Rongo
| hangul = 논어
| hanja = 論語
| rr = Noneo
}}

The '''''Analects''''', also known as the '''''Sayings of Confucius''''', is an ancient [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosophical]] text composed of sayings and ideas attributed to [[Confucius]] and his contemporaries, traditionally believed to have been compiled by his followers. The consensus among scholars is that large portions of the text were composed during the [[Warring States period]] (475–221&nbsp;BC), and that the work achieved its final form during the mid-[[Han dynasty]] (206&nbsp;BC{{snd}}220&nbsp;AD). During the early Han, the ''Analects'' was merely considered to be a commentary on the [[Five Classics]]. However, by the dynasty's end the status of the ''Analects'' had grown to being among the central texts of [[Confucianism]].

During the late [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279&nbsp;AD) the importance of the ''Analects'' as a [[Chinese philosophy]] work was raised above that of the older Five Classics, and it was recognized as one of the "[[Four Books]]". The ''Analects'' has been one of the most widely read and studied books in China for more than two millennia; its ideas continue to have a substantial influence on East Asian thought and values.

Confucius believed that the welfare of a country depended on the moral cultivation of its people, beginning from the nation's leadership. He believed that individuals could begin to cultivate an all-encompassing sense of virtue through ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|ren]]'', and that the most basic step to cultivating ''ren'' was [[filial piety]]—primarily the devotion to one's parents and older siblings. He taught that one's individual desires do not need to be suppressed, but that people should be educated to reconcile their desires via ''li'', rituals and forms of propriety, through which people could demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society. Confucius also believed that a ruler's sense of ''[[De (Chinese)|de]]'', or 'virtue', was his primary prerequisite for leadership. His primary goal in educating his students was to produce [[Junzi|ethically well-cultivated men]] who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things.

== History ==
=== Creation of the text ===
[[File:Manuscript of Lunyu, text by Kong Anguo with commentary by Zheng Xuan.jpg|thumb|Fragment from the manuscript of ''Analects'', text by [[Kong Anguo]] with commentary by [[Zheng Xuan]]. This fragmentary manuscript has been found at [[Mogao Caves]]. It is dated era Longji, 2nd year (i.e. 890&nbsp;AD), but it could be copied in the middle of the 8th century. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]]]]
[[File:Analects.JPG|thumb|The ''Analects'', from [[Östasiatiska Museet]] in Stockholm]]
According to [[Ban Gu]], writing in the ''[[Book of Han]]'', the ''Analects'' originated as individual records kept by Confucius's disciples of conversations between the Master and them, which were then collected and jointly edited by the disciples after Confucius' death in 479&nbsp;BC. The work was titled ''Lunyu'' during the Han dynasty: in this context the character for ''lun'' means 'discuss' or 'dispute',<ref name="ni">{{Cite book |last=Ni |first=Peimin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xEMSDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA77|title=Understanding the Analects of Confucius: A New Translation of Lunyu with Annotations |date=2017-02-07 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-6452-7 |pages=77&ndash;78|language=en}}</ref> while ''yu'' means 'speech' or 'sayings'.{{sfnp|Kim|Csikszentmihalyi|2010|p=25}} ''Lunyu'' therefore may mean 'edited conversations',{{sfnp|Knechtges|Shih|2010|p=645}} or 'selected speeches' (thus "{{linktext|analects}}").{{sfnp|Kim|Csikszentmihalyi|2010|p=25}} This broadly forms the traditional account of the genesis of the work accepted by later generations of scholars, for example the [[Song dynasty]] neo-Confucian scholar [[Zhu Xi]] stated that ''Analects'' is the records of Confucius's first- and second-generation pupils.{{sfnp|Kim|Csikszentmihalyi|2013|p=26}}

This traditional view has been challenged by Chinese, Japanese, and Western scholars. The Qing dynasty [[philologist]] Cui Shu argued on linguistic ground that the last five books were produced much later than the rest of the work. [[Itō Jinsai]] claimed that, because of differences he saw in patterns of language and content in the ''Analects'', a distinction in authorship should be made between the "upper ''Analects''" (Books 1–10) and "lower ''Analects''" (Books 11–20). [[Arthur Waley]] speculated that Books 3–9 represent the earliest parts of the book. E. Bruce Brooks and A. Taeko Brooks reviewed previous theories of the chapters' creation and produced a "four stratum theory" of the text's creation.{{sfnp|Van Norden|2002|p=12}}{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|pp=xiii-xiv}} Many modern scholars now believe that the work was compiled over a period of around two hundred years, some time during the [[Warring States period]] (476–221&nbsp;BC), with some questioning the authenticity of some of the sayings.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID4gMCaLr0MC&pg=PA10 |title=Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials|author=Lee Dian Rainey |page=10|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010 |isbn=978-1444323603 }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite book |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2022/23420 |title=The Analects of Confucius |translator-first=Robert |translator-last=Eno |year=2015 |publisher=Indiana University |hdl=2022/23420 |last1=Eno |first1=Robert }}</ref> Because no manuscript dated earlier than {{circa|70&nbsp;BC}} has been discovered, and because the ''Analects'' was not referred to by name in any existing source before the early Han dynasty, some scholars have proposed dates as late as 140 BC for the text's final compilation.{{sfnp|van Els|2012|pp=21–23}}

Regardless of how early the text of the ''Analects'' existed, most ''Analects'' scholars believe that by the early Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) the book was widely known and transmitted throughout China in a mostly complete form, and that the book acquired its final, complete form during the Han dynasty. However, Han dynasty writer [[Wang Chong]] claimed that all copies of the ''Analects'' that existed during the Han dynasty were incomplete and formed only a part of a much larger work.{{sfnp|Kim|Csikszentmihalyi|2010|pp=25–26}} This is supported by the fact that a larger collection of Confucius's teachings did exist in the Warring States period than has been preserved directly in the ''Analects'': 75% of Confucius's sayings cited by his second-generation student, [[Mencius]], do not exist in the received text of the ''Analects''.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=23}}

=== Textual history<span class="anchor" id="Versions"></span> ===
According to the Han dynasty scholar [[Liu Xiang (scholar)|Liu Xiang]], there were two versions of the ''Analects'' that existed at the beginning of the Han dynasty: the "[[Lu (state)|Lu]] version" and the "[[Qi (state)|Qi]] version". The Lu version contained twenty chapters, and the Qi version contained twenty-two chapters, including two chapters not found in the Lu version. Of the twenty chapters that both versions had in common, the Lu version had more passages. Each version had its own masters, schools, and transmitters.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=7, 15–16}}

In the reign of [[Emperor Jing of Han]] ({{r.|157|141&nbsp;BC}}), a third "[[Old Text]]" version was discovered hidden in a wall of the home believed at the time to have been Confucius's, when the home was in the process of being destroyed by King Gong of Lu ({{r.|153|128&nbsp;BC}}) in order to expand the king's palace. The new version did not contain the two extra chapters found in the Qi version, but it split one chapter found in the Lu and Qi versions in two, so it had twenty-one chapters, and the order of the chapters was different.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=7, 15–16}}

The old text version got its name because it was written in characters not used since the earlier Warring States period (before 221&nbsp;BC), when it was assumed to have been hidden.{{sfnp|van Els|2012|p=20}} According to the Han dynasty scholar [[Huan Tan]], the old text version had four hundred characters different from the Lu version—from which the received text is mostly based—and it seriously differed from the Lu version in 27 places. Of these twenty-seven differences, the received text only agrees with the old text version in two places.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=24}}{{clarify|date=March 2024}}

Over a century later, {{ill|Zhang Yu (Western Han)|zh|张禹 (西汉)|lt=Zhang Yu}}, the tutor of the ''Analects'' to [[Emperor Cheng of Han]], ({{died in|5&nbsp;BC}}), synthesized the Lu and Qi versions by taking the Lu version as authoritative and selectively adding sections from the Qi version, and produced a composite text of the ''Analects'' known as the "Zhang Hou Lun". This text was recognized by Zhang Yu's contemporaries and by subsequent Han scholars as superior to either individual version, and is the text that is recognized as the ''Analects'' today.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=7, 15–16}} No complete copies of either the Lu version or the old text version of the ''Analects'' exist today,{{sfnp|van Els|2012|p=20}} though fragments of the old text version were discovered at [[Dunhuang manuscripts|Dunhuang]].{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=24}} The Qi version was lost for about 1,800&nbsp;years, but was rediscovered during the excavation of the tomb of [[Marquis of Haihun]] in 2011.<ref>China Daily</ref>

Before the late twentieth century the oldest existing copy of the ''Analects'' known to scholars was found in the "Stone Classics of the Xinping Era", a copy of the Confucian classics written in stone in the old Eastern capital of [[Luoyang]] {{circa|175&nbsp;AD}}. Archaeologists have since discovered two handwritten copies of the ''Analects'' that were written {{circa|50&nbsp;BC}}, during the Western Han dynasty. They are known as the "[[Dingzhou]] ''Analects''", and the "[[Pyongyang]] ''Analects''", after the location of the tombs in which they were found. The Dingzhou ''Analects'' was discovered in 1973, but no transcription of its contents was published until 1997. The Pyongyang ''Analects'' was discovered in 1992. Academic access to the Pyongyang ''Analects'' has been highly restricted, and no academic study on it was published until 2009.{{sfnp|van Els|2012|pp=1–2}}

The Dingzhou ''Analects'' was damaged in a fire shortly after it was entombed in the Han dynasty. It was further damaged in [[1976 Tangshan earthquake|an earthquake]] shortly after it was recovered, and the surviving text is just under half the size of the received text of the ''Analects''. Of the sections that survive, the Dingzhou ''Analects'' is shorter than the received ''Analects'', implying that the text of the ''Analects'' was still in the process of expansion when the Dingzhou ''Analects'' was entombed. There was evidence that "additions" may have been made to the manuscript after it had been completed, indicating that the writer may have become aware of at least one other version of the ''Analects'' and included "extra" material for the sake of completeness.{{sfnp|van Els|2012|pp=6, 10–11, 20–21}}

The content of the Pyongyang ''Analects'' is similar to the Dingzhou ''Analects''. Because of the secrecy and isolationism of the [[North Korea]]n government, only a very cursory study of it has been made available to international scholars, and its contents are not completely known outside of North Korea. Scholars do not agree about whether either the Dingzhou ''Analects'' or the Pyongyang ''Analects'' represent the Lu version, the Qi version, the old text version, or a different version that was independent of these three traditions.{{sfnp|van Els|2012|pp=6, 10–11, 20–21}}

To date, the oldest extant manuscript of the ''Analects'' are the discovered texts found in the Haihunhou Tomb in 2011; the Haihunhou ''Analects'' "circulated at least seventeen years" before the Dingzhou and Pyongyang ones.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/739803 |title=Popularization of the Analects of Confucius in Western Han and the Discovery of the ''Qi Lun'': With a Focus on the Bamboo Slips Unearthed from the Haihunhou Tomb|last= |first= |journal=Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies |date= 2019|volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=213–232 |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>

=== Importance within Confucianism ===
During most of the Han period the ''Analects'' was not considered one of the principal texts of Confucianism. During the reign of [[Han Wudi]] (141–87&nbsp;BC), when the Chinese government began promoting Confucian studies, only the [[Five Classics]] were considered by the government to be canonical (''jing''). They were considered Confucian because Confucius was assumed to have partially written, edited, and/or transmitted them. The ''Analects'' was considered secondary as it was thought to be merely a collection of Confucius's oral "commentary" (''zhuan'') on the Five Classics.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|p=7}}

The political importance and popularity of Confucius and Confucianism grew throughout the Han dynasty, and by the [[Han dynasty|Eastern Han]] the ''Analects'' was widely read by schoolchildren and anyone aspiring to literacy, and often read before the Five Classics themselves. During the Eastern Han, the heir apparent was provided a tutor specifically to teach him the ''Analects''. The growing importance of the ''Analects'' was recognized when the Five Classics was expanded to the "Seven Classics": the Five Classics plus the ''Analects'' and the ''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]'', and its status as one of the central texts of Confucianism continued to grow until the late [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), when it was identified and promoted as one of the [[Four Books]] by Zhu Xi and generally accepted as being more insightful than the older Five Classics.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=8, 18–19}}

The writing style of the ''Analects'' also inspired future Confucian writers. For example, the [[Sui dynasty]] writer [[Wang Tong (philosopher)|Wang Tong]]'s ''Explanation of the Mean'' ({{zhi|c=中说}})<ref>[https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%AA%AA Explanation on the Mean (中說)]</ref> was purposely written to emulate the style of the ''Analects'', a practice praised by the [[Ming dynasty]] philosopher [[Wang Yangming]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Ivanhoe|first=Philip|title=Readings from the Lu-Wang school of Neo-Confucianism|page=149|date=2009|publisher=Hackett Pub. Co.|location=Indianapolis|isbn=978-0872209602}}</ref>

=== Commentaries ===
[[File:Commentaries of the Analects of Confucius.jpg|thumb|right|A copy of He Yan's commentary on the ''Analects'', with a sub-commentary by [[Xing Bing]], printed during the [[Ming dynasty]]]]
Since the Han dynasty, Chinese readers have interpreted the ''Analects'' by reading scholars' commentaries on the book. There have been many commentaries on the ''Analects'' since the Han dynasty, but the two which have been most influential have been the ''Collected Explanations of the Analects'' (''Lunyu Jijie'') by [[He Yan]] ({{circa|195–249}}) and several colleagues, and the ''Collected Commentaries of the Analects'' (''Lunyu Jizhu'') by [[Zhu Xi]] (1130–1200). In his work, He Yan collected, selected, summarized, and rationalized what he believed to be the most insightful of all preceding commentaries on the ''Analects'' which had been produced by earlier Han and [[Cao Wei|Wei dynasty]] (220–265&nbsp;AD) scholars.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=8, 13–14}}

He Yan's personal interpretation of the ''Lunyu'' was guided by his belief that [[Daoism]] and Confucianism complemented each other, so that by studying both in a correct manner a scholar could arrive at a single, unified truth. Arguing for the ultimate compatibility of Daoist and Confucian teachings, he argued that "Laozi [in fact] was in agreement with the Sage" (sic). The ''Explanations'' that was written in 248&nbsp;AD, was quickly recognized as authoritative, and remained the standard guide to interpreting the ''Analects'' for nearly 1,000 years, until the early [[Yuan dynasty]] (1271–1368). It is the oldest complete commentary on the ''Analects'' that still exists.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=8, 13–14}}

He Yan's commentary was eventually displaced as the definitive, standard commentary by Zhu Xi's commentary. Zhu Xi's work also brought together the commentaries of earlier scholars (mostly from the Song dynasty), along with his own interpretations. Zhu's work took part in the context of a period of renewed interest in Confucian studies, in which Chinese scholars were interested in producing a single "correct" intellectual orthodoxy that would "save" Chinese traditions and protect them from foreign influences, and in which scholars were increasingly interested in metaphysical speculation.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=18–20, 46}}

In his commentary Zhu made a great effort to interpret the ''Analects'' by using theories elaborated in the other Four Books, something that He Yan had not done. Zhu attempted to give an added coherence and unity to the message of the ''Analects'', demonstrating that the individual books of the Confucian canon gave meaning to the whole, just as the whole of the canon gave meaning to its parts. In his preface, Zhu Xi stated, "[T]he ''Analects'' and the ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]'' are the most important works for students pursuing the [[Tao|Way]] [...] The words of the ''Analects'' are all inclusive; what they teach is nothing but the essentials of preserving the mind and cultivating [one's] nature."{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=7–8, 21, 46}}

From the first publication of the ''Commentaries'', Zhu continued to refine his interpretation for the last thirty years of his life. In the fourteenth century, the Ming state endorsed Zhu's commentary. Until 1905 it was read and memorized along with the ''Analects'' by all Chinese aspiring to literacy and employment as government officials.{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=7–8, 21, 46}}

== Contents ==
Very few reliable sources about Confucius exist besides that of the Analects. The principal biography available to historians is included in [[Sima Qian]]'s ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', but because the history contains a significant amount of material unverifiable in other sources and possibly legendary, the biographical material on Confucius found in the ''Analects'' makes the ''Analects'' arguably the most reliable source of biographical information about Confucius.{{sfnp|Lau|2002|p=ix}} Confucius viewed himself as a "transmitter" of social and political traditions originating in the early [[Zhou dynasty]] ({{circa|1000–800&nbsp;BC}}), and claimed not to have originated anything (§7.1), but Confucius's social and political ideals were not popular in his time.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

=== Social philosophy ===
Confucius' discussions on the nature of the supernatural (§3.12; §6.20; §11.11) indicate his belief that while "ghosts" and "spirits" should be respected, they are best kept at a distance. Instead human beings should base their values and social ideals on moral philosophy, tradition, and a natural love for others. Confucius' social philosophy largely depended on the cultivation of ''[[Ren (Confucianism)|ren]]'' by every individual in a community.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

Later Confucian philosophers explained ''ren'' as the quality of having a kind manner, similar to the English words "humane", "altruistic", or "benevolent", but, of the sixty instances in which Confucius discusses ''ren'' in the ''Analects'', very few have these later meanings. Confucius instead used the term ''ren'' to describe an extremely general and all-encompassing state of virtue, one which no living person had attained completely. (This use of the term ''ren'' is peculiar to the ''Analects''.){{sfnp|Waley|1938|pp=27–29}}

Throughout the ''Analects'', Confucius's students frequently request that Confucius define ''ren'' and give examples of people who embody it, but Confucius generally responds indirectly to his students' questions, instead offering illustrations and examples of behaviours that are associated with ''ren'' and explaining how a person could achieve it. According to Confucius, a person with a well-cultivated sense of ''ren'' would speak carefully and modestly (§12.3); be resolute and firm (§12.20), courageous (§14.4), free from worry, unhappiness, and insecurity (§9.28; §6.21); moderate their desires and return to propriety (§12.1); be respectful, tolerant, diligent, trustworthy and kind (§17.6); and love others (§12.22). Confucius recognized his followers' disappointment that he would not give them a more comprehensive definition of ''ren'', but assured them that he was sharing all that he could (§7.24).{{sfnp|Gardner|2003|pp=52–53}}

To Confucius, the cultivation of ''ren'' involved depreciating oneself through modesty while avoiding artful speech and ingratiating manners that would create a false impression of one's own character (§1.3). Confucius said that those who had cultivated ''ren'' could be distinguished by their being "simple in manner and slow of speech." He believed that people could cultivate their sense of ''ren'' through exercising the inverted [[Golden Rule]]: "Do not do to others what you would not like done to yourself"; "a man with ''ren'', desiring to establish himself, helps others establish themselves; desiring to succeed himself, helps others to succeed" (§12.2; §6.28).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

Confucius taught that the ability of people to imagine and project themselves into the places of others was a crucial quality for the pursuit of moral self-cultivation (§4.15; see also §5.12; §6.30; §15.24).{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=34}} Confucius regarded the exercise of [[Filial piety|devotion to one's parents]] and older siblings as the simplest, most basic way to cultivate ''ren''. (§1.2).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

Confucius believed that ''ren'' could best be cultivated by those who had already learned self-discipline, and that self-discipline was best learned by practicing and cultivating one's understanding of [[Li (Confucian)|''li'']]: rituals and forms of propriety through which people demonstrate their respect for others and their responsible roles in society (§3.3). Confucius said that one's understanding of ''li'' should inform everything that one says and does (§12.1). He believed that subjecting oneself to ''li'' did not mean suppressing one's desires but learning to reconcile them with the needs of one's family and broader community.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

By leading individuals to express their desires within the context of social responsibility, Confucius and his followers taught that the public cultivation of ''li'' was the basis of a well-ordered society (§2.3).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}} Confucius taught his students that an important aspect of ''li'' was observing the practical social differences that exist between people in daily life. In Confucian philosophy these "five relationships" include: ruler to ruled; father to son; husband to wife; elder brother to younger brother; and friend to friend.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

''Ren'' and ''li'' have a special relationship in the ''Analects'': ''li'' manages one's relationship with one's family and close community, while ''ren'' is practiced broadly and informs one's interactions with all people. Confucius did not believe that ethical self-cultivation meant unquestioned loyalty to an evil ruler. He argued that the demands of ''ren'' and ''li'' meant that rulers could oppress their subjects only at their own peril: "You may rob the Three Armies of their commander, but you cannot deprive the humblest peasant of his opinion" (§9.26). Confucius said that a morally well-cultivated individual would regard his devotion to loving others as a mission for which he would be willing to die (§15.8).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="2. Confucius' Social Philosophy"}}

=== Political philosophy ===
Confucius' political beliefs were rooted in his belief that a good ruler would be self-disciplined, would govern his subjects through education and by his own example, and would seek to correct his subjects with love and concern rather than punishment and coercion. "If the people be led by laws, and uniformity among them be sought by punishments, they will try to escape punishment and have no sense of shame. If they are led by virtue, and uniformity sought among them through the practice of ritual propriety, they will possess a sense of shame and come to you of their own accord" (§2.3; see also §13.6). Confucius' political theories were directly contradictory to the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalistic]] political orientations of China's rulers, and he failed to popularize his ideals among China's leaders within his own lifetime.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="3. Confucius' Political Philosophy"}}

Confucius believed that the social chaos of his time was largely due to China's ruling elite aspiring to, and claiming, titles of which they were unworthy. When the ruler of the large state of [[Qi (state)|Qi]] asked Confucius about the principles of good government, Confucius responded: "Good government consists in the ruler being a ruler, the minister being a minister, the father being a father, and the son being a son" (§12.11).

The analysis of the need to raise officials' behavior to reflect the way that they identify and describe themselves is known as the [[rectification of names]], and he stated that the rectification of names should be the first responsibility of a ruler upon taking office (§13.3). Confucius believed that, because the ruler was the model for all who were under him in society, the rectification of names had to begin with the ruler, and that afterwards others would change to imitate him (§12.19).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="3. Confucius' Political Philosophy"}}

Confucius judged a good ruler by his possession of ''[[De (Chinese)|de]]'' ('virtue'): a sort of moral force that allows those in power to rule and gain the loyalty of others without the need for physical coercion (§2.1). Confucius said that one of the most important ways that a ruler cultivates his sense of ''de'' is through a devotion to the correct practices of ''li''. Examples of rituals identified by Confucius as important to cultivate a ruler's ''de'' include: sacrificial rites held at ancestral temples to express thankfulness and humility; ceremonies of [[enfeoffment]], toasting, and gift exchanges that bound nobility in complex hierarchical relationships of obligation and indebtedness; and, acts of formal politeness and decorum (i.e. bowing and yielding) that identify the performers as morally well-cultivated.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="3. Confucius' Political Philosophy"}}

=== Education ===
The importance of education and study is a fundamental theme of the ''Analects''. For Confucius, a good student respects and learns from the words and deeds of his teacher, and a good teacher is someone older who is familiar with the ways of the past and the practices of antiquity (§7.22). Confucius emphasized the need to find balance between formal study and intuitive self-reflection (§2.15). When teaching he is never cited in the ''Analects'' as lecturing at length about any subject, but instead challenges his students to discover the truth through [[Socratic method|asking direct questions]], citing passages from the classics, and using analogies (§7.8).{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="4. Confucius and Education"}} He sometimes required his students to demonstrate their understanding of subjects by making intuitive conceptual leaps before accepting their understanding and discussing those subjects at greater levels of depth. (§3.8){{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|pp=19–20}}

His primary goal in educating his students was to produce ethically well-cultivated men who would carry themselves with gravity, speak correctly, and demonstrate consummate integrity in all things (§12.11; see also §13.3). He was willing to teach anyone regardless of social class, as long as they were sincere, eager, and tireless to learn (§7.7; §15.38). He is traditionally credited with teaching three thousand students, though only seventy are said to have mastered what he taught. He taught [[Six Arts|practical skills]], but regarded moral self-cultivation as his most important subject.{{sfnp|Riegel|2012|loc="4. Confucius and Education"}}

=== Chapters ===
The traditional titles given to each chapter are mostly an initial two or three [[incipit]]s. In some cases a title may indicate a central theme of a chapter, but it is inappropriate to regard a title as a description or generalization of the content of a chapter. Chapters in the ''Analects'' are grouped by individual themes, but the chapters are not arranged in a way as to carry a continuous stream of thoughts or ideas. The themes of adjacent chapters are completely unrelated to each other. Central themes recur repeatedly in different chapters, sometimes in exactly the same wording and sometimes with small variations.

Chapter 10 contains detailed descriptions of Confucius's behaviors in various daily activities. [[Voltaire]] and [[Ezra Pound]] believed that this chapter demonstrated how Confucius was a mere human. [[Simon Leys]], who recently translated the ''Analects'' into English and French, said that the book may have been the first in human history to describe the life of an individual, historic personage. [[Elias Canetti]] wrote: "Confucius's ''Analects'' is the oldest complete intellectual and spiritual portrait of a man. It strikes one as a modern book; everything it contains and indeed everything it lacks is important."{{sfn|Canetti|1984|p=173}}

Chapter 20, "[[Yao Yue]]", particularly the first verse, is bizarre in terms of both language and content. In terms of language, the text appears to be archaic (or a deliberate imitation of the archaic language of the Western Zhou) and bears some similarity with the language of the speeches in the ''[[Book of Documents|Shujing]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Schaberg|first1=David|last2=Ames|first2=Roger T.|last3=Rosemont|first3=Henry|last4=Lau|first4=D. C.|last5=Dawson|first5=Raymond|last6=Leys|first6=Simon|last7=Huang|first7=Chichung|last8=Hinton|first8=David|last9=Brooks|first9=E. Bruce|date=December 2001|title="Sell it! Sell it!": Recent Translations of Lunyu|journal=Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews|volume=23|pages=115–139|doi=10.2307/495503|jstor=495503}}</ref>{{sfnp|Van Norden|2002}}{{page needed|date=October 2021}} In terms of the content, the passage appears to be an admonition by [[Yao (ruler)|Yao]] to [[Shun (ruler)|Shun]] on the eve of Yao's abdication, which seems to be only tangentially related to Confucius and his philosophy. Moreover, there appear to be some problems with the text's continuity, and scholars have speculated that parts of the text were lost in the process of transmission and possibly transmitted with errors in the order.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Analects|translator-last=Yang|translator-first=Bojun|year=2008|publisher=Zhonghua shuju|isbn=978-7-101-06228-1|location=Beijing|oclc=269201157|translator-link=Yang Bojun}}</ref> The fragmentary nature of the final chapter of the received Lu text has been explained by the "accretion theory", in which the text of the ''Analects'' was gradually accreted over a 230-year period, beginning with the death of Confucius and ending suddenly with the conquest of Lu in 249 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Slingerland|first=Edward|date=2000|editor-last=Brooks|editor-first=E. Bruce|editor2-last=Brooks|editor2-first=A. Taeko|title=Why Philosophy Is Not "Extra" in Understanding the Analects|journal=Philosophy East and West|volume=50|issue=1|pages=137–141|issn=0031-8221|jstor=1400076}}</ref>

Within these incipits, a large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ''ziyue'', "The Master said," but without punctuation marks in classical Chinese, this does not confirm whether what follows ''ziyue'' is direct quotation of actual sayings of Confucius, or simply to be understood as "the Master said that.." and the paraphrase of Confucius by the compilers of the Analects.<ref>Roger T. Ames ''The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation'' 2010 p. 285 "A large number of passages in the Analects begin with the formulaic ziyue 子曰, "The Master said," but because there are no punctuation marks in classical Chinese, we must ask if whatever follows ziyue is a literal transcription of speech, or a paraphrase of it, or a method of transmitting ideas in a written language which existed in important ways independently of the spoken language."</ref>

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
|+ List of chapters in the ''Analects''
|- 
! scope="col" | {{numero|abbr=yes}} !! scope="col" style="width:10em" | Title !! scope="col" style="width:12em" | Translation !! scope="col" | Notes
|-
! scope="row" | 1
| {{zhc|c=學而|p=[[Xue Er|Xué ér]]}} || "Studying and Practicing" ||
|-
! scope="row" | 2
| {{zhc|c=為政|p=Wéi zhèng}} || "The practice of government" || This chapter explores the theme that political order is best gained through the [[wu wei|non-coercive influence]] of moral self-cultivation rather than through force or excessive government regulation.{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=8}}
|-
! scope="row" | 3
| {{zhc|c=八佾|p=Bā yì}} || "Eight lines of eight dancers apiece" || Ba Yi was a kind of ritual dance practiced in the court of the Zhou king. In Confucius' time, lesser nobles also began staging these dances for themselves. The main themes of this chapter are: criticism of ritual impropriety (especially among China's political leadership), and the need to combine learning with nature in the course moral self-cultivation.{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=17}}
Chapters 3–9 may be the oldest in the ''Analects''.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}}
|-
! scope="row" | 4
| {{zhc|c=里仁|p=Lǐ rén}} || "Living in brotherliness" || This chapter explores the theme of ''ren'', its qualities, and the qualities of those who have it. A secondary theme is the virtue of filial piety.{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=29}}
|-
! scope="row" | 5
| {{zhc|c=公冶長|p=Gōngyě cháng}} || "Gongye Chang" || The main theme of this chapter is Confucius' examination of others' qualities and faults in order to illustrate the desirable course of moral self-cultivation.{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=39}} This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of [[Duanmu Ci|Zigong]], a student of Confucius.{{sfnp|Legge|2009|p=16}} [[Gongye Chang]] was Confucius' son-in-law.{{sfnp|Legge|2009|p=119}}
|-
! scope="row" | 6
| {{zhc|c=雍也|p=Yōng yě}} || "There is Yong" || Refers to [[Ran Yong]], also called Zhou Gong, a disciple of Confucius.
|-
! scope="row" | 7
| {{zhc|c=述而|p=Shù ér}} || "Transmission" || Transmission, not invention [of learning].
|-
! scope="row" | 8
| {{zhc|c=泰伯|p=Tàibó}} || "Taibo" || [[Wu Taibo]] was the legendary founder of the [[state of Wu]]. He was the oldest son of [[King Tai of Zhou|King Tai]] and the uncle of [[King Wen of Zhou|King Wen]] of the [[Zhou dynasty]].
|-
! scope="row" | 9
| {{zhc|c=子罕|p=Zǐ hǎn}} || "The Master shunned" || Confucius seldom spoke of advantage.
|-
! scope="row" | 10 
| {{zhc|c=鄉黨|p=Xiāng dǎng}} || "Among the Xiang and the Dang" || A "xiang" was a group of 12,500 families, while a "dang" is a group of 500. The chapter is a collection of maxims related to ritual.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}}
|-
! scope="row" | 11 
| {{zhc|c=先進|p=Xiānjìn}} || "Those of former eras" || The former generations. This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of [[Min Sun]], a student of Confucius.{{sfnp|Legge|2009|p=16}}
|-
! scope="row" | 12
| {{zhc|c=顏淵|p=Yán Yuān}} || "Yan Yuan" || [[Yan Hui]] was a common name of Zi Yuan, the favorite disciple of Confucius.
|-
! scope="row" | 13
| {{zhc|c=子路|p=Zǐlù}} || "Zilu" || [[Zilu]] was a student of Confucius.
|-
! scope="row" | 14
| {{zhc|c=憲問|p=Xiàn wèn}} || "Xian asked" || This chapter has traditionally been attributed to the disciples of [[Yuan Xian]], also called both Yuan Si and Zisi, a student of Confucius.{{sfnp|Legge|2009|p=16}}
|-
! scope="row" | 15
| {{zhc|c=衛靈公|p=Wèi líng gōng}} || "[[Duke Ling of Wey]]" || Duke Ling ruled from 534 to 493 BC in the [[state of Wey]].
|-
! scope="row" | 16
| {{zhc|c=季氏|p=Jì shì}} || "Chief of the Ji Clan" || [[Jisun]] was an official from one of the most important families in Lu. This chapter is generally believed to have been written relatively late;{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}} possibly compiled from the extra chapters of the Qi version of the ''Analects''.{{sfnp|Legge|2009|p=16}}
|-
! scope="row" | 17
| {{zhc|c=陽貨|p=Yáng huò}} || "Yang Huo" || Yang was an official of the Ji clan, an important family in Lu.
|-
! scope="row" | 18
| {{zhc|c=微子|p=Wēizǐ}} || "Weizi" || Weizi was the older half-brother of [[King Zhou of Shang|Zhou]], the last king of the [[Shang dynasty]], and was founder of the [[state of Song]]. The writer of this chapter was critical of Confucius.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}}
|-
! scope="row" | 19
| {{zhc|c=子張|p=Zǐzhāng}} || "Zizhang" || Zizhang ([[Zhuansun Shi]]) was a student of Confucius. This chapter consists entirely of sayings by Confucius' disciples.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}}
|-
! scope="row" | 20
| {{zhc|c=堯曰|p=[[Yao Yue|Yáo yuē]]}} || "Yao spoke" || [[Emperor Yao|Yao]] was one of the traditional [[Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors]] of ancient China. This chapter consists entirely of stray sentences resembling the style and content of the ''[[Shujing]]''.{{sfnp|Waley|1938|p=21}}
|-
|}

== Notable translations ==
[[File:First page of Tự Đức thánh chế luận ngữ thích nghĩa ca.png|thumb|A Vietnamese translation of the Analects translated by [[Tự Đức]] in Tự Đức thánh chế luận ngữ thích nghĩa ca 嗣德聖製論語釋義歌.]]

===English===
* {{cite book | title=Confucian Analects, the Great Learning, and the Doctrine of the Mean | first=James, trans. | last=Legge | author-link=James Legge | series=The Chinese Classics | volume=I | location=London | publisher=Trübner | year=1861 | url=https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics02legggoog }} [https://archive.org/details/chineseclassics01mencgoog Revised second edition] (1893), Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted by Cosimo in 2006. {{ISBN|978-1-60520-643-1}}
* {{cite book | title=The Sayings of Confucius | first=Leonard A., trans. | last=Lyall | location=London | publisher=Longmans, Green and Co. | year=1909 | url=http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/2/4/0/5/24055/24055-h/24055-h.htm |oclc=1435673 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Analects of Confucius | first=William Edward, trans. | last=Soothill | author-link=William Edward Soothill | location=Yokohama | publisher=Fukuin Printing | year=1910 | url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/title/1846 }}; rpt. London: Oxford University Press (1937).
* {{cite book | title=The Analects | first=Arthur, trans. | last=Waley | author-link=Arthur Waley | location=London | publisher=George Allen and Unwin | year=1938 | url=http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/analects.txt | access-date=2011-09-21 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616015435/http://acc6.its.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~phalsall/texts/analects.txt | archive-date=2015-06-16 | url-status=dead }} Rpt. (2000), New York: Alfred A. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0-375-41204-2}}
* {{cite book | first=D. C., trans. | last=Lau | author-link=D.C. Lau | title=Confucius, The Analects (Lun yü) | location=Harmondsworth | publisher=Penguin Books | year=1979}}; rpt. with Chinese text, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press (1979).
* {{cite book | title=The Analects of Confucius | first=Chi-chung, trans. | last=Huang | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 | isbn=978-0195112764 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Analects of Confucius | first=Simon, trans. | last=Leys | author-link=Simon Leys | location = New York | publisher = W.W. Norton and Co. | year = 1997 | isbn=978-0393316995 }}
* {{cite book | title=The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation | first1=Roger T. | last1 = Ames | first2=Henry, trans. | last2 = Rosemont | author-link=Roger T. Ames | location = New York | publisher = Ballantine Books (Penguin Random House) | year = 1999 | isbn=978-0345434074}}
* {{cite book | title=The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Followers | first1=E. Bruce | last1 = Brooks | first2=Taeko, trans. | last2 = Brooks | location = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2001 | isbn=978-0231104302}}
* {{cite book | title=Analects of Confucius: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries | first=Edward, trans. | last=Slingerland | author-link=Edward Slingerland | location = Cambridge | publisher = Hackett Publishing Company | year = 2003 | isbn=978-0872206359 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book | title=The Analects of Confucius | first=Burton, trans. | last=Watson | author-link=Burton Watson | location = New York | publisher = Columbia University Press | year = 2007 | isbn=978-0-231-14164-2}}

===French===
* {{cite book | first=Séraphin, trans. | last=Couvreur | author-link=Séraphin Couvreur | title=Entretiens de Confucius | trans-title=Conversations of Confucius | series=Les Quatre Livres | year=1930 | location=Sien Hsien | publisher=Mission Catholique | edition=3rd|language=fr}}
* {{cite book | first=Anne, trans. | last=Cheng | author-link=Anne Cheng | title=Entretiens de Confucius | trans-title=Conversations of Confucius | location=Paris | publisher=Éditions du Seuil | year=1981|language=fr}}
* {{cite book | first=Pierre, trans. | last=Ryckmans | author-link=Pierre Ryckmans (writer) | title=Les Entretiens de Confucius | trans-title=The Conversations of Confucius | location=Paris | publisher=Gallimard | year=1987|language=fr}} English version published as Simon Leys, trans. (1997), ''The Analects of Confucius'' (New York: W. W. Norton).

===Japanese===
* Yoshikawa, Kōjirō 吉川幸次郎 (1978). ''Rongo'' 論語 [''Lunyu''], 3 vols. Tokyo: Asahi Shinbun. Rpt. 2 vols, Asahi Shinbun (1996).

== See also ==
{{Portal|China}}
* ''[[Kongzi Jiayu]]'', sayings of Confucius not included in the ''Analects''
* [[Sacred text]]
* [[Virtue jurisprudence]]
* [[Disciples of Confucius]]
* [[Hadith]]
* [[Mahāvākyas]]
* ''[[The Maxims of Ptahhotep]]''

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Canetti |first=Elias |title=The Conscience of Words |translator-first=Joachim |translator-last=Neugroschel |publisher=Farrar Straus Giroux |year=1984 |isbn=0374518815}}
* {{cite book | first=Anne | last=Cheng | chapter=''Lun yü'' 論語 | editor-first=Michael | editor-last=Loewe | editor-link=Michael Loewe | title=Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide | location=Berkeley | publisher=Society for the Study of Early China; Institute for East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley | year=1993 | isbn=978-1-55729-043-4 | pages=313–323 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Daniel K |title=Zhu Xi's Reading of the Analects: Canon, Commentary, and the Classical Tradition |location=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-231-12865-0}}
* China Daily. [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116174212/http://www.kaogu.cn/en/News/New_discoveries/2017/0113/56820.html "Qi Version of 'Analects of Confucius' Discovered in Haihunhou Tomb"]. ''Chinese Archaeology''. January 13, 2017. Retrieved April 17, 2019.
* {{cite journal| last=van Els |first=Paul |url=http://www.paulvanels.nl/resources/publications/PvE2013AnalectsDraft.pdf |title=Confucius' sayings entombed: On Two Han Dynasty ''Analects'' Manuscripts |journal=Analects Studies|location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003201823/http://www.paulvanels.nl/resources/publications/PvE2013AnalectsDraft.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-03 }}
* {{cite book | first=Martin | last=Kern | chapter=Early Chinese literature, Beginnings through Western Han | pages=1–115 | editor-first=Stephen | editor-last=Owen | title=The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, Volume 1: To 1375 | year=2010 | location=Cambridge | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-11677-0 }}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SBHHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 | first1=Tae Hyun |last1=Kim |first2=Mark |last2= Csikszentmihalyi |chapter=Chapter 2 |title=Dao Companion to the Analects|editor-first= Amy | editor-last=Olberding |pages=21–36|isbn=978-9400771123|publisher= Springer|year= 2010 }}
* {{cite book | first1=David R. | last1=Knechtges | author-link=David R. Knechtges | first2=Hsiang-ling | last2=Shih | chapter=''Lunyu'' 論語 | editor-first=David R. | editor-last=Knechtges | editor2-first=Taiping | editor2-last=Chang | title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Part One |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mED9Vx10WokC&pg=645 |location=Leiden | publisher=Brill | year=2010 | pages=645–650 | isbn=978-90-04-19127-3 }}
* {{cite book |last=Lau |first=D.C. |chapter=Introduction |title=The Analects |location=Hong Kong |publisher=The Chinese University Press |year=2002 |isbn=962-201-980-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Legge |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QUCZEPUyvBAC |chapter=Prolegomena |title=The Confucian Analects, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean |location=New York |publisher=Cosimo |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60520-644-8}}
* {{Cite book|title=Confucius and the Analects : New Essays |last=Van Norden|first=Bryan |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-535082-1 |location=New York |oclc=466432745 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqb0Fa8Umv4C }}
* {{cite book |last=Riegel |first=Jeffrey |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/confucius/ |chapter=Confucius |title=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-first=Edward N. |editor-last=Zalta |date=Spring 2012|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University }}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SBHHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 | first1=Tae Hyun |last1=Kim |first2=Mark |last2= Csikszentmihalyi |chapter=Chapter 2 |title=Dao Companion to the Analects|editor-first= Amy | editor-last=Olberding |pages=21–36|isbn=978-9400771123|publisher= Springer|year= 2013 }}
* {{cite book |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6DseYHSfaagC&pg=PR14 |title = Analects: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries |first=Edward |last =Slingerland |isbn=978-1-60384-345-4 |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing Company|Hackett]] |location=[[Indianapolis]] |year=2003 }}
* Waley, Arthur. "Terms". In ''The Analects of Confucius''. Trans. Arthur Waley. New York: Vintage Books. 1938.
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Bryan W. Van Norden|Van Norden, Bryan W.]] ''Confucius and the Analects : New Essays''. [[Oxford University Press]], 2001. {{ISBN|978-0195350821}}.
*[https://religiondatabase.org/browse/1063/#/ The ''Analects''] at the Database of Religious History.

== External links ==
{{External links|date=July 2024}}
{{sister project links|d=Q276015|s=The Analects|q=The Analects|wikt=analects|b=The Analects|c=Category:Analects|n=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|f=no|species=no}}
{{Wikisourcelang|zh|論語}}
* {{librivox book | dtitle=The Analects of Confucius|stitle=Analects | author=CONFUCIUS}}
* [http://themathesontrust.org/library/analects-lun-yu-audio Bilingual excerpts and children's audio in Chinese and Japanese.]
* [http://ctext.org/analects Chinese-English bilingual text (Legge's translation)] with links to [[Zhu Xi]]'s commentary, at [[Chinese Text Project]].
* [http://www.acmuller.net/con-dao/analects.html English translation by A. Charles Muller, with Chinese text.]
* [http://confucius.org/lunyu/lange.htm English translation at Confucius.org, one page per verse.]
* [http://classics.mit.edu/Confucius/analects.html English translation at MIT Classics]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090315225647/http://slu.edu/colleges/AS/languages/classical/latin/tchmat/pedagogy/latinitas/kung/k1.htm Latin translation (Zottoli, 1879)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050320102811/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/c/confucius/c748a/ Legge's English translation from the University of Adelaide Library] (no section numbers)
* [http://wengu.tartarie.com/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu Multilingual edition of the ''Analects'' in Chinese, English and French]
* [http://www.confucius.org/main01.htm Translations of the ''Analects'' in over 20 languages, with footnotes.]

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