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[[Image:Aquaculturechile.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Aquaculture installations in [[Zona Sur|southern Chile]].]]
'''Aquaculture''' is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including [[mollusc]]s, [[crustacean]]s and aquatic plants. Unlike [[fishing]], aquaculture, also known as '''aquafarming''', implies the cultivation of aquatic populations under controlled conditions. <ref name="AmericanHeritageDef">[http://www.answers.com/topic/aquaculture American Heritage Definition of Aquaculture]</ref> [[Mariculture]] refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments. Particular kinds of aquaculture include [[algaculture]] (the production of [[kelp]]/[[seaweed]] and other [[algae]]), [[fish farming]], [[shrimp farm]]ing, [[oyster farming]], and the growing of [[pearl|cultured pearls]]. Particular methods include [[aquaponics]], which integrates fish farming and plant farming.

== History ==
[[Image:Delta Pride Catfish farm harvest.jpg|thumb|left|Workers harvest catfish from the Delta Pride Catfish farms in Mississippi]]
Aquaculture has been used in [[China]] since circa 2500 BC. When the waters lowered after [[river]] floods, some fishes, mainly [[Common carp|carp]], were held in artificial [[lakes]]. Their brood were later fed using [[nymph (biology)|nymphs]] and [[silkworm]] feces, while the fish themselves were eaten as a source of [[protein]]. By a fortunate genetic mutation, this early domestication of [[Common carp|carp]] led to the development of [[goldfish]] in the [[Tang Dynasty]].

The [[Native Hawaiians|Hawaiian]] people practiced aquaculture by constructing [[fish pond]]s (see [[Hawaiian aquaculture]]). A remarkable example from [[ancient Hawaii]] is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000&nbsp;years ago, at [[Alekoko]]. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical [[Menehune]]. The [[Japan]]ese practiced cultivation of [[seaweed]] by providing [[bamboo]] poles and, later, nets and [[oyster]] shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for [[spores]]. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] often bred fish in ponds.

The practice of aquaculture gained prevalence in [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], since fish were scarce and thus expensive. However, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, causing a decline in the practice. When the first North American fish hatchery was constructed on [[Dildo Island]], Newfoundland [[Canada]] in 1889, it was the largest and most advanced in the world.

Americans were rarely involved in aquaculture until the late 20th century, but [[California]] residents harvested wild kelp and made legal efforts to manage the supply starting circa 1900, later even producing it as a wartime resource.<ref>Peter Neushul, Seaweed for War: California's World War I kelp industry, Technology and Culture 30 (July 1989), 561-583.</ref>
[[Image:Fresh tilapia.jpg|thumb|[[Tilapia]], a commonly farmed fish due to its adaptability]]

Actually, there was keen interest in aquaculture in the United States as early as 1859 when Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, NY began his experiments with brook trout. By 1864 Seth Green had established a commercial fish hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, NY. By 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord Mass, artificial fish hatching operations were under way in both Canada and the United States.<ref>Milner, James W. (1874). "The Progress of Fish-culture in the United States". United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873. 535 – 544 (http://penbay.org/cof/cof_1872_1873.html)</ref>

In contrast to agriculture, the rise of aquaculture is a contemporary phenomenon. According to professor Carlos M. Duarte about 430 (97%) of the aquatic species presently in culture have been domesticated since the start of the 20th century, and an estimated 106 aquatic species have been domesticated over the past decade. The [[domestication]] of an aquatic species typically involves about a decade of scientific research. Current success in the domestication of aquatic species results from the 20th century rise of knowledge on the basic [[biology]] of aquatic species and the lessons learned from past success and failure. The stagnation in the world's [[fisheries]] and overexploitation of 20 to 30% of marine fish species have provided additional impetus to domesticate marine species, just as overexploitation of land animals provided the impetus for the early domestication of land species

In the 1960s, the price of fish began to climb, as wild fish capture rates peaked and the human population continued to rise. Today, commercial aquaculture exists on an unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s, open-netcage salmon farming also expanded; this particular type of aquaculture technology remains a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but possible negative impacts on wild stocks, which have come into question since the late 1990s, have caused it to become a major cause of controversy.<ref>[http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Oceans/Aquaculture/Salmon/ David Suzuki Foundation: Open-net-cage fish farming<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>

==World production==
In 2004, the total world production of fisheries was 140.5&nbsp;million tonnes of which aquaculture contributed 45.5&nbsp;million tonnes or about 32% of the total world production.<ref name="SOPHIA 2006">[[FAO]] (2006) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/A0699e/A0699e00.htm The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOPHIA)]</ref> The growth rate of worldwide aquaculture has been sustained and rapid, averaging about 8 percent per annum for over thirty years, while the contribution to the total from [[wild fisheries]] has been essentially flat for the last decade.

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=7 align="left" width="480px"| '''Average annual percentage growth for different species groups'''<ref name="SOPHIA 2006"/>
|-
! Time period
! Crustaceans
! Molluscs
! Freshwater<br />fish
! Diadromous<br />fish
! Marine<br />fish
! Overall
|-
| 1970–2004
| 18.9
| 7.7
| 9.3
| 7.3
| 10.5
| 8.8
|-
| 1970–2004
| 18.9
| 7.7
| 9.3
| 7.3
| 10.5
| 8.8
|-
| 1970–1980
| 23.9
| 5.6
| 6.0
| 6.5
| 14.1
| 6.2
|-
| 1980–1990
| 24.1
| 7.0
| 13.1
| 9.4
| 5.3
| 10.8
|-
| 1990–2000
| 9.1
| 11.6
| 10.5
| 6.5
| 12.5
| 10.5
|-
|2000–2004
| 19.2
| 5.3
| 5.2
| 5.8
| 9.6
| 6.3
|}
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2 align="left" width="280px"|'''Major species groups in 2004'''
|-
! Species group
! Million [[tonne]]s<ref name="SOPHIA 2006"/>
|-
| [[Freshwater fish]]es
| align="right"| 23.87
|-
| [[Mollusc]]s
| align="right"| 13.93
|-
| [[Aquatic plant]]s
| align="right"| 13.24
|-
| [[Diadromous fish]]es
| align="right"| 3.68
|-
| [[Crustacean]]s
| align="right"| 2.85
|-
| [[Marine fish]]es
| align="right"| 1.45
|-
| Other [[aquatic animal]]s
| align="right"| 0.38
|}

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2 align="left" width="280px"| '''Top ten species groups in 2004'''
|-
! Species group
! Million [[tonne]]s<ref name="SOPHIA 2006"/>
|-
| [[Carp]]s and other [[cyprinid]]s
| align="right"| 18.30
|-
| [[Oyster]]s
| align="right"| 4.60
|-
| [[Clam]]s, [[cockle]]s, [[ark shell]]s
| align="right"| 4.12
|-
| Miscellaneous [[freshwater fish]]es
| align="right"| 3.74
|-
| [[Shrimp]]s, [[prawn]]s
| align="right"| 2.48
|-
| [[Salmon]]s, [[trout]]s, [[smelt]]s
| align="right"| 1.98
|-
| [[Mussel]]s
| align="right"| 1.86
|-
| [[Tilapia]]s and other [[cichlid]]s
| align="right"| 1.82
|-
| [[Scallop]]s, [[pecten]]s
| align="right"| 1.17
|-
| Miscellaneous marine [[mollusc]]s
| align="right"| 1.07
|}

==Production by country==
Aquaculture is an especially important economic activity in China. Between 1980 and 1997, the Chinese Bureau of Fisheries reports, aquaculture harvests grew at an annual rate of 16.7 percent, jumping from 1.9&nbsp;million to nearly 23&nbsp;million tons. In 2005 China accounted for 70% of the world's aquaculture production<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.05/fish.html Wired 12.05: The Bluewater Revolution]</ref><ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A31159-2005Jan23?language=printer washingtonpost.com: Fish Farming's Bounty Isn't Without Barbs]</ref>.

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan=2 align="left" width="220px"| '''Top ten aquaculture producers in 2004'''
|-
! Country
! Million [[tonne]]s<ref name="SOPHIA 2006"/>
|-
| [[China]]
| align="right"| 30.61
|-
| [[India]]
| align="right"| 2.47
|-
| [[Viet Nam]]
| align="right"| 1.20
|-
| [[Thailand]]
| align="right"| 1.17
|-
| [[Indonesia]]
| align="right"| 1.05
|-
| [[Bangladesh]]
| align="right"| 0.91
|-
| [[Japan]]
| align="right"| 0.78
|-
| [[Chile]]
| align="right"| 0.67
|-
| [[Norway]]
| align="right"| 0.64
|-
| [[United States]]
| align="right"| 0.61
|-
| Other countries
| align="right"| 5.35
|-
| Total
| align="right"| 45.47
|}

In the US, approximately 90% of all shrimp consumed is farmed and imported.<ref>[http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5600e/y5600e00.HTM The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) 2004<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In recent years salmon aquaculture has become a major export in southern [[Chile]], especially in [[Puerto Montt]] and [[Quellón]], Chile's fastest-growing city.

== Environmental impacts ==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
The concentrated nature of aquaculture often leads to higher than normal levels of fish waste in the water. Fish waste is organic and composed of nutrients necessary in all components of aquatic food webs. In some instances such as nearshore, high-intensity operations, increased waste can adversely affect the environment by decreasing dissolved oxygen levels in the water column. Onshore recirculating aquaculture systems, facilities using [[polyculture]] techniques, and properly-sited facilities (e.g. offshore or areas with strong currents) are examples of ways to reduce or eliminate the negative environmental effects of fish waste.

Aquaculture can be more environmentally damaging than exploiting [[Wild fisheries of the world|wild fisheries]].<ref>Diamond, Jared. Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking Press, 2005. pgs. 479-485</ref> Some heavily-farmed species of fish, such as salmon, are maintained in net-contained environments. Unused feed and waste products can contaminate the sea floor and cultured fish can escape from these pens. Escapees can out compete wild fish for food and spread disease, as well as dilute wild genetic stocks through interbreeding. The salmon consume approximately ten times more energy in fish as they are worth at harvest, making this kind of aquaculture less energy efficient than properly managed fishing.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

Despite the environmental concerns, aquaculture profitability is so high that money can and should go back into promoting sustainable practices. <ref>[http://ictsd.net/i/environment/11849/ "Aquaculture: Issues and Opportunities for Sustainable Production and Trade, published by ITCSD in July 2006"]</ref> Furthermore, new methods minimize the risk of biological and chemical pollution through minimizing stress to fish, vaccinating fish, fallowing netpens, and applying Integrated Pest Management. Vaccines also reduce antibiotic use, which are being used more and more. <ref>[http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/12217/marine_aquaculture_pew_2001.pdf "Pew Oceans Commission report on Aquaculture"]</ref>

Farming carnivorous fish may actually increase the pressure on wild fish, as for farming one kilo of farmed fish up to six kilo of wild fish are used for feeding.<ref>[http://assets.wwf.ch/downloads/2008_05_28_faktenblatt_fisch_d.pdf Swiss WWF Factsheet], Page 7, Heading "Fische und Meeresfrüchte aus Zuchten"</ref>

== Types of aquaculture ==
=== Algaculture ===
{{main|Algaculture}}
[[Image:Spirulina farm.jpg|thumb|right|An open pond [[Spirulina]] farm]]

Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of [[algae]]. The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of [[microalgae]], also referred to as [[phytoplankton]], [[microphytes]], or [[planktonic algae]].

[[Macroalgae]], commonly known as [[seaweed]]s, also have many commercial and industrial uses, but due to their size and the specific requirements of the environment in which they need to grow, they do not lend themselves as readily to cultivation on a large scale as microalgae and are most often harvested wild from the ocean.

=== Fish farming ===
{{main|Fish farming}}
Fish farming is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under [[mariculture]]. It involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational [[fishing]] or to supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish [[hatchery]]. Fish species raised by fish farms include [[salmon]], [[catfish]], [[tilapia]], [[cod]], [[carp]], [[trout]] and others.

Increasing demands on [[Wild fisheries of the world|wild fisheries]] by [[fishing industry|commercial fishing]] operations have caused widespread [[overfishing]]. Fish farming offers an alternative solution to the increasing [[market]] [[demand]] for [[fish]] and fish [[protein]].

=== Freshwater prawn farming ===
{{main|Freshwater prawn farm}}
A freshwater prawn farm is an aquaculture business designed to raise and produce freshwater [[prawn]] or [[shrimp]] for human consumption. Freshwater prawn farming shares many characteristics with, and many of the same problems as, marine [[shrimp farm]]ing. Unique problems are introduced by the developmental life cycle of the main species (the [[giant river prawn]], ''Macrobrachium rosenbergii'').<ref name="freshwater">New, M. B.: ''[http://library.enaca.org/Shrimp/Publications/FAO_Macrobrachium_manual_2003.pdf Farming Freshwater Prawns]''; FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 428, 2002. ISSN 0429-9345.</ref>

The global annual production of freshwater prawns (excluding [[crayfish]] and [[crab]]s) in 2003 was about 280,000 tons, of which China produced some 180,000 tons, followed by India and Thailand with some 35,000 tons each. Additionally, China produced about 370,000 tons of [[Chinese river crab]] (''Eriocheir sinensis'').<ref name="figis_fresh">Data extracted from the [http://www.fao.org/figis/servlet/static?dom=collection&xml=global-aquaculture-production.xml FAO Fisheries Global Aquaculture Production Database] for freshwater crustaceans. The most recent data sets are for 2003 and sometimes contain estimates. Accessed June 28, 2005.</ref>

=== Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture ===
{{main|Integrated Multi-trophic Aquaculture}}
Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs ([[fertilizer]]s, [[food]]) for another. Fed aquaculture (e.g. [[fish]], [[shrimp]]) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. [[seaweed]]) and organic extractive (e.g. [[shellfish]]) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).<ref name="Chopin et al. 2001"> Chopin T, Buschmann AH, Halling C, Troell M, Kautsky N, Neori A, Kraemer GP, Zertuche-Gonzalez JA, Yarish C and Neefus C. 2001. Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability. Journal of Phycology 37: 975-986.</ref>

"Multi-Trophic" refers to the incorporation of [[species]] from different [[trophic]] or [[nutritional]] levels in the same system.<ref name="Chopin 2006"> Chopin T. 2006. Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. What it is, and why you should care… and don’t confuse it with polyculture. Northern Aquaculture, Vol. 12, No. 4, July/August 2006, pg. 4.</ref> This is one potential distinction from the age-old practice of aquatic [[polyculture]], which could simply be the co-culture of different fish species from the same trophic level. In this case, these organisms may all share the same biological and chemical processes, with few [[Synergy|synergistic]] benefits, which could potentially lead to significant shifts in the [[ecosystem]]. Some traditional polyculture systems may, in fact, incorporate a greater diversity of species, occupying several [[Ecological niche|niches]], as extensive cultures (low intensity, low management) within the same pond. The "Integrated" in IMTA refers to the more intensive cultivation of the different species in proximity of each other, connected by nutrient and energy transfer through water, but not necessarily right at the same location.

Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in an IMTA system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species should be more than just [[biofilters]]; they should also be harvestable crops of commercial value.<ref name="Chopin 2006"/> A working IMTA system should result in greater production for the overall system, based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved [[ecosystem health]], even if the individual production of some of the species is lower compared to what could be reached in [[monoculture]] practices over a short term period.<ref name="Neori et al. 2004"> Neori A, Chopin T, Troell M, Buschmann AH, Kraemer GP, Halling C, Shpigel M and Yarish C. 2004. Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture. Aquaculture 231: 361-391.</ref>

Sometimes the more general term "Integrated Aquaculture" is used to describe the integration of monocultures through water transfer between organisms.<ref name="Neori et al. 2004"/> For all intents and purposes however, the terms "IMTA" and "integrated aquaculture" differ primarily in their degree of descriptiveness. These terms are sometimes interchanged. [[Aquaponics]], fractionated aquaculture, IAAS (integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems), IPUAS (integrated peri-urban-aquaculture systems), and IFAS (integrated fisheries-aquaculture systems) may also be considered variations of the IMTA concept.

=== Mariculture ===
{{main|Mariculture}}
Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for [[food]] and other products in the open [[ocean]], an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, [[ponds]] or [[Raceway (aquaculture)|raceways]] which are filled with [[seawater]]. An example of the latter is the farming of [[fish|marine fish]], [[prawns]], or [[oysters]] in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: [[fish meal]], [[agar|nutrient agar]], [[Jewelery|jewelries]] (e.g. [[Pearl|cultured pearls]]), and [[cosmetics]].

=== Shrimp farming ===
{{main|Shrimp farm}}
A shrimp farm is an aquaculture business for the cultivation of marine [[shrimp]] for human consumption. Commercial shrimp farming began in the 1970s, and production grew steeply, particularly to match the market demands of the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Japan]] and Western [[Europe]]. The total global production of farmed shrimp reached more than 1.6&nbsp;million [[tonne]]s in 2003, representing a value of nearly 9,000&nbsp;million<!-- PLEASE DO NOT replace this figure with "9 billion" due to the different meanings of "billion" (can be 10^9 or 10^12, depending on U.S/European usage). "9,000 million" is unambiguous. [[User:Lupo|Lupo]] 07:10, 17 October 2005 (UTC) --> [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]]. About 75% of farmed shrimp is produced in [[Asia]], in particular in [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Thailand]]. The other 25% is produced mainly in [[Latin America]], where [[Brazil]] is the largest producer. The largest exporting nation is Thailand.

Shrimp farming has changed from traditional, small-scale businesses in [[Southeast Asia]] into a global industry. Technological advances have led to growing shrimp at ever higher densities, and [[broodstock]] is shipped worldwide. Virtually all farmed shrimp are [[penaeid]]s (i.e., shrimp of the [[family (biology)|family]] ''[[Penaeidae]]''), and just two species of shrimp—the ''[[Whiteleg shrimp|Penaeus vannamei]]'' (Pacific white shrimp) and the ''[[Penaeus monodon]]'' (giant tiger prawn)—account for roughly 80% of all farmed shrimp. These industrial [[monoculture]]s are very susceptible to [[disease]]s, which have caused several regional wipe-outs of farm shrimp populations. Increasing [[ecology|ecological]] problems, repeated disease outbreaks, and pressure and criticism from both [[non-governmental organization|NGOs]] and consumer countries led to changes in the industry in the late 1990s and generally stronger regulation by governments. In 1999, a program aimed at developing and promoting more [[sustainable agriculture|sustainable farming]] practices was initiated, including governmental bodies, industry representatives, and environmental organizations.

== Types of fish in aquaculture ==
* [[Asian carp]]
* [[Atlantic salmon]]
* [[Barramundi]]
* [[Bighead carp]]
* [[Black carp]]
* [[Black Drum aka,Redfish]]
* [[Catfish]]
* [[Catla]]
* [[Cobia]]
* [[Common carp]]
* [[Florida Pompano]]
* [[Grass carp]]
* [[Gourami]]
* [[Milkfish]]
* [[Black Crappie]]
* [[Perch]]
* [[Bluegill]]
* [[Tilapia]]
Mirgala,
Rohita,
Lates calcrifer (sea bass),
Murrels

== See also ==
* [[Algaculture]]
* [[Aquaponics]]
* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Fish farming]]
* [[Fisheries science]]
* [[Mariculture]]
* [[Industrial agriculture (animals)#Aquaculture|Industrial agriculture]]
* [[Shrimp farm]]
* [[Prawn farm]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{Refbegin}}
* Corpron, K.E., Armstrong, D.A., 1983. Removal of nitrogen by an aquatic plant, ''Elodea densa'', in recirculating ''Macrobrachium'' culture systems. Aquaculture 32, 347-360.
* Duarte, Carlos M; Marbá, Nùria and Holmer, Marianne (2007) ''Rapid Domestication of Marine Species.'' Science. Vol 316, no 5823, pp 382–383. [http://podcasts.aaas.org/science_podcast/SciencePodcast_070420.mp3 podcast]
* [http://www.longline.co.uk/site/publications/farm.pdf J. G. Ferreira, A.J.S. Hawkins, S.B. Bricker, 2007. Management of productivity, environmental effects and profitability of shellfish aquaculture – The Farm Aquaculture Resource Management (FARM) model. Aquaculture, 264, 160-174.]
* [[GESAMP]] (2008) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/i0035e/i0035e00.htm ''Assessment and communication of environmental risks in coastal aquaculture''] [[FAO]] Reports and Studies No 76. ISBN 978-92-5-105947-0
* Hepburn, J. 2002. ''Taking Aquaculture Seriously''. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association.
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/eh/11.3/kinsey.html Kinsey, Darin, 2006 "'Seeding the water as the earth' : epicentre and peripheries of a global aquacultural revolution. Environmental History 11, 3: 527-66]
* Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. ''Aquaculture – A Gateway For Exotic Species''. [[Science (journal)|Science]], 294: 1655-6.
* [http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/green/reia-01.asp The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002. Review and synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture]
*Higginbotham James ''Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy'' University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997)
* Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) ''Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I'' [[University of Hawaii]] Press :: ISBN 0-8248-1396-0
* Timmons, M.B., Ebeling, J.M., Wheaton, F.W., Summerfelt, S.T., Vinci, B.J., 2002. Recirculating Aquaculture Systems: 2nd edition. Cayuga Aqua Ventures.
* Piedrahita, R.H., 2003. Reducing the potential environmental impacts of tank aquaculture effluents through intensification and recirculation. Aquaculture 226, 35-44.
* Klas, S., Mozes, N., Lahav, O., 2006. Development of a single-sludge denitrification method for nitrate removal from RAS effluents: Lab-scale results vs. model prediction. Aquaculture 259, 342-353.
{{Refend}}

== Further reading ==
* ''AquaLingua'' ISBN 82-529-2389-5
* [http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-9299-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html ''Rice–Fish Culture in China''] (1995), ISBN 9780889367760, {{oclc|35883297}}

== External links ==
{{external links}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{commonscat}}
;Global
* [[FAO]] (2007) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0699e/A0699E09.htm#9.3 ''Medium-term challenges and constaints for aquaculture''] ISBN 978-92-5-105568-7
* [[FAO]] (2000) [http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/AB412E/AB412E00.HTM '' Aquaculture in the Third Millennium'']
* [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA report] on fisheries and aquaculture
* [https://www.was.org/Main/Default.asp The World Aquaculture Society]: an international non-profit society with over 3,000 members in 94 countries with the primary focus to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community.
* [http://www.crc.uri.edu/index.php?themeid=1 The Coastal Resources Center] provides a range of guidelines, policies and best practices and case studies on shrimp farming, seaweed farming and shellfish culture.
;Regional
* [http://www.enaca.org Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific]: Intergovernmental organization with 17 members that produce > 85% of global aquaculture production. Free news and full-text aquaculture publications for download.
* [http://www.aquaculture.noaa.gov NOAA aquaculture]: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration – website for information about marine aquaculture in the US and elsewhere.
*[http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/esb/?goal=ecosystems&file=users/business/aquaculture/ Social & Economic Benefits of Aquaculture] from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative
* [http://www.aquacultureassociation.ca Aquaculture Association of Canada:]
* [http://www.fisheries.org American Fisheries Society]
* [http://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=11921 Aquaculture Information from the Coastal Ocean Institute], [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]]
* [http://www.aquaculture.org.uk Aquaculture Information Bureau]: Scottish based Aquaculture Information Bureau.]
* [http://fisheries.siu.edu Fisheries and Illinois Aquaculture Center]: Midwest US research center.]

;Topic Specific
* [http://www.northernaquafarms.com/aquaculture/page5.html Aqua Farm Designs - Benefits of Water recirculation systems in Aquaculture]: Description of water recirculation aquaculture systems and benefits of using these types of farm designs to produce fish within eco-friendly land based enclosed aquaculture operations.
* [http://www.fishinghurts.com/FishFarms.asp FishingHurts.com/FishFarms: Criticism of aquaculture's effects on animal welfare and the environment]
* [http://www.watershed-watch.org/ww/Sealicefacts/sealicefacts_main.htm Watershed Watch Society] Salmon farming and sea lice
* [http://www.longline.co.uk Web based aquaculture simulations for shellfish in estuaries and coastal systems]: Simulation modelling for mussels, oysters and clams.

;Web Resources
* [http://www.islandpress.org/aquake Aqua KE--Aquaculture Research Database]
*[http://www.northernaquafarms.com/links.html Aquaculture Resources Directory] A directory of reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources.
* [http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca/rcbtoa/services/aquaculture.html Organic Aquaculture:] Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically.
* [http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=aquaculture&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture]
* [http://www.fishing4info.com/ Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science]
* [http://www.imagomundi.org/area-wp/ Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists] News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on its social effects
* [http://govdocs.aquake.org Aquaculture Knowledge Environment:] A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct.
* [http://aquanic.org/ AquaNIC] A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources.
* [http://www.tecfish.com.ar Aquaculture and Information]
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/sciext/globalvoices/10essay.dtl AAAS science magazine feature on aquaculture]
* [http://www.sfu.ca/cstudies/science/resources/salmon/aquaculture/aquaculture.htm Aquaculture and the Protection of Wild Salmon]
* [http://www.socalfishfarm.com/fish/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46&Itemid=55 SoCal Aquaponics is a facility that is established to grow the best quality organically grown Tilapia, Shrimp and Vegetables.]

{{aquaculture topics}}
{{fisheries and fishing}}

[[Category:Hydrography]]
[[Category:Physical oceanography]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Aquaculture]]

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[[it:Acquacoltura]]
[[he:חקלאות ימית]]
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[[ja:養殖業]]
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[[uk:Аквакультура]]
[[zh:水產養殖]]

Revision as of 20:16, 8 February 2009

yr mom smells like aqua culture

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