Augustus: Difference between revisions
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:''For other uses of Octavius, see [[Octavius (disambiguation)]]. For other uses of Octavian, see [[Octavian (disambiguation)]]. For other uses of Augustus, see [[Augustus (disambiguation)]].'' |
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load of bullshit |
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{{Infobox royalty |
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| name = Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus |
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| title = [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] of the [[Roman Empire]] |
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| image = Statue-Augustus.jpg |
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| imgw = 250px |
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| caption = The statue known as the [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] |
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| reign = 16 January 27 BC – 19 August [[14|AD 14]] |
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| full name = Gaius Octavius Thurinus (from birth to adoption by [[Julius Caesar]] in 44 BC);<br /> Gaius Julius Caesar (from 44 to 27 BC);<br /> Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (from 27 BC until death) |
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| imperial name = Imperator Caesar Divi f[ilius] Augustus |
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| successor = [[Tiberius]] |
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| heir = |
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| spouse = 1) [[Clodia Pulchra]] 43–40 BC <br />2) [[Scribonia]] 40–38 BC <br />3) [[Livia Drusilla]] 38 BC–AD 14 |
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| issue = [[Julia the Elder]]; <br /> [[Gaius Caesar]] (adoptive); <br /> [[Lucius Caesar]] (adoptive); <br />[[Tiberius]] (adoptive) |
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| royal house = [[Julio-Claudian dynasty|Julio-Claudian]] |
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| house-type = Imperial Dynasty |
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| father = Natural: [[Gaius Octavius]];<br /> Adoptive: [[Julius Caesar]] (In 44 BC) |
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| mother = [[Atia Balba Caesonia]] |
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| date of birth = {{bday|0063-09|BC=y|23 September 63 BC ([[Roman calendar]])}} |
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| place of birth = [[Rome]], [[Roman Republic]] |
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| date of death = {{End-date|0014-8-19|19 August [[AD 14]] ([[Julian calendar]]) (aged 75)}} |
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| place of death = [[Nola]], [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italia]], [[Roman Empire]] |
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| place of burial = [[Mausoleum of Augustus]], Rome |
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|}} |
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| data1 = These articles cover '''[[Portal:Ancient Rome|Ancient Rome]]''' and the fall of the [[Roman Republic|Republic]] |
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| data3 = '''[[Roman Republic]]''', '''[[Mark Antony]]''', '''[[Cleopatra VII|Cleopatra VII]]''', '''[[Assassination of Julius Caesar]]''', '''[[Pompey]]''', |
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'''[[Theatre of Pompey]]''', '''[[Cicero]]''', '''[[First Triumvirate]]''' |
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'''Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus''' (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was the first ruler of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from January 27 BC until his death in AD 14.<ref group="note">The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian after 45 BC. Due to departures from Julius Caesar's intentions, Augustus restored the Julian calendar in 8 BC, and the correspondence between the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] and the actual calendar observed in Rome is uncertain before 8 BC.(Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003: 670–1)</ref> Born '''Gaius Octavius Thurinus''', he was [[Adoption in ancient Rome|adopted]] [[posthumously]] by his great-uncle [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] in 44 BC, and between then and 31 BC was officially named '''Gaius Julius Caesar'''. In 27 BC the Senate awarded him the honorific [[Augustus (honorific)|''Augustus'']] ("the revered one"), and thus consequently he was '''Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus'''.<ref group="note">Formally ''[[Imperator]] [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], Divi filius, [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' which means ''Imperator Caesar, Son of the [[Divus]] ([[Julius Caesar|Divus Julius]]), Augustus.''</ref> Because of the various names he bore, it is common to call him '''Octavius''' when referring to events between 63 and 44 BC, '''Octavian''' (or ''Octavianus'') when referring to events between 44 and 27 BC, and '''Augustus''' when referring to events after 27 BC. In Greek sources, Augustus is known as '''{{Polytonic|Ὀκτάβιος}}''' (''Octavius''), '''{{Polytonic|Καῖσαρ}}''' (''Caesar''), '''{{Polytonic|Αὔγουστος}}''' (''Augustus''), or '''Σεβαστός''' (''[[Sebastos]]''), depending on context. |
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The young Octavius came into his inheritance after Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. In 43 BC, Octavian joined forces with [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] in a [[military dictatorship]] known as the [[Second Triumvirate]]. As a [[triumvir]], Octavian ruled Rome and many of its provinces<ref group="note">Some provinces were governed by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]].</ref> The triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its rulers: Lepidus was driven into exile, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the [[Battle of Actium]] by the fleet of Octavian commanded by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] in 31 BC. |
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Augustus Caesar was alive and well and truly alive. Sadly, he is now dead and well and truly dead. HA |
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After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian restored the outward facade of the [[Roman Republic]], with governmental power vested in the [[Roman Senate]], but in practice retained his autocratic power. It took several years to determine the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler; the result became known as the [[Roman Empire]]. The emperorship was never an office like the [[Roman dictator]]ship which Caesar and [[Sulla]] had held before him; indeed, he declined it when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship".<ref name="ccaa 35">Gruen (2005), 35.</ref> By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including those of [[tribune]] of the plebs and [[Roman censor|censor]]. He was [[Roman consul|consul]] until 23 BC.<ref>Dio (1987), 153.</ref> His substantive power stemmed from financial success and resources gained in conquest, the building of patronage relationships throughout the Empire, the loyalty of many military soldiers and veterans, the authority of the many honors granted by the Senate,<ref name = "eck 3"/> and the respect of the people. Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's [[Roman army|legion]]s established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions. With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards him. His rule through patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices of the defunct Republic became the model for all later imperial governments. |
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Augustus Caesar was born as plain old Gaius Octavian Caesar, but somehow changed his name. |
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The rule of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', or ''Roman peace''. Despite continuous frontier wars, and one [[Year of Four Emperors|year-long civil war]] over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus expanded the Roman Empire, secured its boundaries with [[client state]]s, and made peace with [[Parthian Empire|Parthia]] through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed [[Roman roads|networks of roads]] with an official [[courier]] system, established a standing army (and a small navy), established the [[Praetorian Guard]], and created official police and fire-fighting forces for Rome. Much of the city was rebuilt under Augustus; and he wrote a record of his own accomplishments, known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', which has survived. Upon his death in AD 14, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate, to be worshipped by the Romans.<ref name="eck 124"/> His names Augustus and Caesar were adopted by every subsequent Emperor, and the month of Sextilis was officially renamed August in his honour. He was succeeded by his stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son, [[Tiberius]]. |
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{{TOC limit|limit=2}} |
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Augustus Caesar spent his childhood being tortured by TV cameras for the series "ROME", on HBO |
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==Early life== |
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Jonathan Wong thinks he's good. |
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{{Julio-Claudian dynasty}} |
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I think not. |
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{{Main|Early life of Augustus}} |
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While his paternal family was from the town of [[Velitrae]], about 25 miles from Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on 23 September 63 BC. He was born at Ox Heads, a small property on the [[Palatine Hill]], very close to the [[Roman Forum]]. He was given the name '''Gaius Octavius Thurinus''', his [[cognomen]] possibly commemorating his father's victory at [[Thurii]] over a rebellious band of slaves.<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#7 7]</ref><ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#5 5–6 on-line text].</ref> Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavius was taken to his father's home village at [[Velitrae]] to be raised. Octavius only mentions his father's [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather was a military tribune in [[Sicily]] during the [[Second Punic War]]. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. [[Gaius Octavius|His father, also named Gaius Octavius]], had been governor of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]].<ref group="note">Suetonius, ''Augustus'' The "Marcus Octavius" [[veto]]ing the [[agrarian law]] suggested by [[Tiberius Gracchus]] in 133 BC was possibly his ancestor. [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#1 1–4].</ref><ref name="rowell 14">Rowell (1962), 14.</ref> His mother [[Atia Balba Caesonia|Atia]] was the niece of [[Julius Caesar]]. |
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In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died.<ref name="chisholm 23">Chisholm (1981), 23.</ref> His mother married a former governor of Syria, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#4 4–8]; [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], ''[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Augustus]'' 3.</ref> Philippus claimed descent from [[Alexander the Great]], and was elected [[Roman consul|consul]] in 56 BC. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother (and Julius Caesar's sister), [[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)|Julia Caesaris]]. |
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In 52 or 51 BC, Julia Caesaris died. Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother.<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]; [[Quintilian]], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/quintilian/quintilian.institutio12.shtml#6 12.6.1].</ref> From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the ''[[toga virilis]]'' four years later,<ref name=Suet8.1>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#8 8.1]</ref> and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]] in 47 BC.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus, [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html ''Augustus''] 4.</ref><ref name="rowell 16">Rowell (1962), 16.</ref> The following year he was put in charge of the [[Games|Greek games]] that were staged in honor of the [[Temple of Venus Genetrix]], built by Julius Caesar.<ref name="rowell 16"/> According to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in [[Africa (province)|Africa]] but gave way when his mother protested.<ref>Nicolaus of Damascus, ''[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Augustus]'' 6.</ref> In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], where he planned to fight the forces of [[Pompey]], Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. |
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When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he crossed hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably.<ref name=Suet8.1/> [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius Paterculus]] reports that Caesar afterwards allowed the young man to share his carriage.<ref>Velleius Paterculus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C*.html#59.3 2.59.3].</ref> When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the [[Vestal Virgins]], naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary.<ref>Suetonius, ''Julius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#83 83].</ref> |
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==Rise to power== |
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===Heir to Caesar=== |
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[[Image:Gerome Death of Caesar.jpg|thumb|200px|''The Death of Caesar'', by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1867). On 15 March 44 BC, Octavius's adoptive father Julius Caesar was assassinated by a conspiracy led by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].]] |
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At the time [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|Caesar was killed]] on the [[Ides of March]] (the 15th) 44 BC, Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in [[Apollonia, Illyria]]. Rejecting the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], he sailed to [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] to ascertain if he had any potential political fortunes or security.<ref name="eck 9">Eck (2003), 9.</ref> After landing at Lupiae near [[Brundisium]], he learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate.<ref name="rowell 16">Rowell (1962), 16.</ref><ref name="eck 9"/><ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/3*.html#9 3.9–11].</ref> Having no living legitimate children,<ref>His daughter [[Julia (daughter of Julius Caesar)|Julia]] had died in 54 BC.</ref> Caesar had adopted his great-nephew Octavius as his son and main heir.<ref name="rowell 15">Rowell (1962), 15.</ref> Upon his [[adoption in Rome|adoption]], Octavius assumed his great-uncle's name, '''Gaius Julius Caesar'''. Although Romans who had been adopted into a new family usually retained their old [[Roman naming conventions|nomen]] in [[cognomen]] form (e.g. ''Octavianus'' for one who had been an Octavius, ''Aemilianus'' for one who had been an Aemilius, etc.) there is no evidence that he ever bore the name ''Octavianus'', as it would have made his modest origins too obvious.<ref>Mackay (2004), 160.</ref><ref name="eck 10"/><ref>Southern, ''Augustus'' pp.20-21</ref> However, despite the fact that he never officially bore the name ''Octavianus'', to save confusing the dead dictator with his heir, historians often refer to the new Caesar—between his adoption and his assumption, in 27 BC, of the name Augustus—as ''Octavian''.<ref>Southern, ''Augustus'' pp.21</ref> [[Mark Antony]] later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though [[Suetonius]], in his work ''[[Lives of the Twelve Caesars]]'', describes Antony's accusation as political slander.<ref>[[The Twelve Caesars|Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71].</ref> |
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To make a successful entry into the upper echelons of the Roman political hierarchy, Octavian could not rely on his limited funds.<ref name="eck 9 10">Eck (2003), 9–10.</ref> After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,<ref name="rowell 19"/> Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against [[Parthia]] in the Middle East.<ref name="eck 9 10"/> This amounted to 700 million [[sestertius|sesterces]] stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east.<ref name="rowell 18">Rowell (1962), 18.</ref> A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds made no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy, Mark Antony.<ref name="rowell 19">Rowell (1962), 19.</ref> Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when without official permission he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's [[Near East]]ern province<!--[[Asia (Roman province)]]?--> to Italy.<ref name="eck 10">Eck (2003), 10.</ref><ref name="ccaa 18">Eder (2005), 18.</ref> Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar.<ref name="eck 9"/><ref>[[Appian]], ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/3*.html#11 3.11–12].</ref> On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in [[Campania]].<ref name="eck 10"/> By June he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 [[denarius|denarii]].<ref name="chisholm 24">Chisholm (1981), 24.</ref><ref name="chisholm 27">Chisholm (1981), 27.</ref><ref name="rowell 20">Rowell (1962), 20.</ref> |
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[[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A statue of Augustus as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC]] |
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Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC,<ref name="eck 10"/> Octavian found the consul [[Mark Antony]], Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins; they had been granted a general amnesty on 17 March, yet Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome.<ref name="eck 10"/> This was due to his "inflammatory" eulogy given at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins.<ref name="eck 10"/> Although Mark Antony was amassing political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he at first opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status.<ref name="eck 11">Eck (2003), 11.</ref> Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him. However, during the summer he managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers, who saw the younger heir as the lesser evil and hoped to manipulate him, or to bear with him during their efforts to get rid of Antonius.<ref>Syme (1939), 114–120.</ref> In September, the [[Optimates|Optimate]] orator [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]] began to attack Antony in a [[Philippic|series of speeches]] portraying Antony as the greatest threat to the order of the Senate.<ref name="chisholm 26">Chisholm (1981), 26.</ref><ref name="rowell 30">Rowell (1962), 30.</ref> With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws which would lend him control over [[Cisalpine Gaul]], which had been assigned as part of his province, from [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]], one of Caesar's assassins.<ref name="eck 11 12">Eck (2003), 11–12.</ref><ref name="rowell 21">Rowell (1962), 21.</ref> Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on 28 November won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain.<ref>Syme (1939), 123–126.</ref><ref name="eck 12">Eck (2003), 12.</ref><ref name="rowell 23">Rowell (1962), 23.</ref> In the face of Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome, and to the relief of the Senate he fled to Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on 1 January.<ref name="rowell 23"/> |
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===First conflict with Antony=== |
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[[File:Augustus 2.JPG|thumb|100px|Bust of Caesar Augustus from the [[Musei Capitolini]], [[Rome]]]] |
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After Decimus Brutus refused to give up [[Cisalpine Gaul]], Antony besieged him at [[Mutina]].<ref name="rowell, 24">Rowell (1962), 24.</ref> The resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence were rejected by Antony, as the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him; this provided an opportunity for Octavian, who was already known to have armed forces.<ref name="eck 12"/> Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage; he stated "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth."<ref name="chisholm 29">Chisholm (1981), 29.</ref> This was in part a rebuttal to Antony's opinion of Octavian, as Cicero quoted Antony saying to Octavian, "You, boy, owe everything to your name."<ref name="chisholm 30">Chisholm (1981), 30.</ref><ref name="rowell 19 20">Rowell (1962), 19–20.</ref> In this unlikely alliance orchestrated by the arch anti-Caesarian senator Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on 1 January 43 BC, yet he was also given the power to vote alongside the former consuls.<ref name="eck 12"/><ref name="rowell 23"/> In addition, Octavian was granted ''[[imperium]]'' (commanding power), which made his command of troops legal, sending him to relieve the siege along with [[Aulus Hirtius|Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]] (the consuls for 43 BC).<ref name="eck 12"/><ref>Syme (1939), 167.</ref> In April of 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of [[Battle of Forum Gallorum|Forum Gallorum]] and [[Battle of Mutina|Mutina]], forcing Antony to retreat to [[Transalpine Gaul]]. However, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies.<ref>Syme (1939), 173–174</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 157.</ref> |
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After heaping many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than Octavian for defeating Antony, the Senate attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus, yet Octavian decided not to cooperate.<ref name="rowell 26 27">Rowell (1962), 26–27.</ref> Instead, Octavian stayed in the [[Po Valley]] and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony.<ref name="rowell 27">Rowell (1962), 27.</ref> In July, an embassy of [[centurion]]s sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa.<ref name="chisholm 32 33">Chisholm (1981), 32–33.</ref> Octavian also demanded that the decree declaring Antony a public enemy should be rescinded.<ref name="rowell 27"/> When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions.<ref name="rowell 27"/> He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on 19 August 43 BC was elected consul with his relative [[Quintus Pedius]] as co-consul.<ref name="eck 14">Eck (2003), 14.</ref><ref name="rowell 28">Rowell (1962), 28.</ref> Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], another leading Caesarian.<ref>Syme (1939), 176–186.</ref> |
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===Second Triumvirate=== |
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====Proscriptions==== |
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[[Image:Antony with Octavian aureus.jpg|thumb|Roman [[aureus|aurei]] bearing the portraits of [[Mark Antony]] (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41 BC to celebrate the establishment of the [[Second Triumvirate]] by Octavian, Antony and [[Marcus Lepidus]] in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the Regulation of the Republic".<ref>{{cite web|last = Sear | first = David R | title = Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins | url = http://www.davidrsear.com/academy/roman_legends.html | accessdate = 2007-08-24 }}</ref>]] |
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In a meeting near [[Bologna]] in October of 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a [[Military dictatorship|junta]] called the [[Second Triumvirate]].<ref name="eck 15"/> This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then supported by law passed by the [[plebs]], unlike the unofficial [[First Triumvirate]] formed by [[Gnaeus Pompey Magnus]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]].<ref name="eck 15">Eck (2003), 15.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 163.</ref> The triumvirs then set in motion [[proscription]]s in which allegedly 300 senators and 2,000 ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'' were branded as [[outlaw]]s and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives.<ref name = "eck 16"/> The estimation that 300 senators were proscribed was presented by [[Appian]], although his earlier contemporary [[Livy]] asserted that only 130 senators had been proscribed.<ref>Southern (1998), 52-53.</ref> This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay their troops' salaries for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].<ref>Scullard (1982), 164.</ref> Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs.<ref name="eck 16">Eck (2003), 16.</ref> |
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Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was more responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies.<ref name="scott 1933 19 20">Scott (1933), 19-20.</ref> [[Marcus Velleius Paterculus]] asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them.<ref name="scott 1933 19"/> [[Cassius Dio]] defended Augustus as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.<ref name="scott 1933 19"/> This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies.<ref name="scott 1933 20">Scott (1933), 20.</ref> [[Suetonius]] presents the case that Octavian, although reluctant at first to proscribe officials, nonetheless pursued his enemies with more rigor than the other triumvirs.<ref name="scott 1933 19 20"/> [[Plutarch]] describes the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family between Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally [[Cicero]], Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle [[Lucius Julius Caesar IV]], and Lepidus his brother Paulus.<ref name="scott 1933 19">Scott (1933), 19.</ref> |
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[[Image:S0484.4.jpg|thumb|left|A [[denarius]] minted circa 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVSIVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS)]] |
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====Battle of Philippi and division of territory==== |
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{{See|Liberators' civil war}} |
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On 1 January 42 BC, the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, ''[[Divus Iulius]]''. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was ''[[Divi filius]]'', "Son of God".<ref>Syme (1939), 202.</ref> Antony and Octavian then sent 28 [[Roman legions|legions]] by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece.<ref name="eck 17">Eck (2003), 17.</ref> After two [[Battle of Philippi|battles at Philippi]] in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] in October of 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and [[Marcus Junius Brutus|Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]] committed [[suicide]]. Mark Antony would later use the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces.<ref name="eck 17 18">Eck (2003), 17–18.</ref> In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] instead.<ref name="eck 17 18"/> |
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After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. While Antony placed [[Gaul]], the provinces of [[Hispania]], and [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] in the hands of Octavian, Antony traveled east to [[Egypt]] where he allied himself with Queen [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]], the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, [[Caesarion]]. Lepidus was left with the [[Africa Province|province of Africa]], stymied by Antony who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead.<ref name="eck 18">Eck (2003), 18.</ref> Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle the tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius, who could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, also required land.<ref name="eck 18"/> There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland; Octavian chose the former.<ref name="eck 18 19">Eck (2003), 18–19.</ref> There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions.<ref name="eck 19">Eck (2003), 19.</ref> |
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====Rebellion and marriage alliances==== |
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Widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over his soldiers' settlements encouraged many to rally at the side of [[Lucius Antonius (brother of Mark Antony)|Lucius Antonius]], who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate.<ref name="eck 19"/> Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from [[Clodia Pulchra]], the daughter of [[Fulvia]] and her first husband [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]]. Claiming that his marriage with Clodia had never been consummated, he returned her to her mother, Mark Antony's wife. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. However, Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries.<ref name="eck 19"/> Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at [[Perusia]] (modern [[Perugia]]), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC.<ref name="eck 19"/> Lucius and his army were spared due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to [[Sicyon]].<ref name="rowell 32">Rowell (1962), 32.</ref> However, Octavian showed no mercy for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius.<ref name="eck 20">Eck (2003), 20.</ref> Perusia was also pillaged and burned as a warning for others.<ref name="rowell 32"/> This bloody event sullied Octavian's reputation and was criticized by many, such as the Augustan poet [[Sextus Propertius]].<ref name="eck 20"/> |
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[[Sextus Pompeius]], son of the First Triumvir [[Pompey]] and still a renegade general following Julius Caesar's victory over his father, was established in [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC.<ref>Scullard (1982), 162</ref> Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius, who was ironically a member of the republican party, not the Caesarian faction.<ref name="eck 20"/> Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance when in 40 BC he married [[Scribonia]], a daughter of [[Lucius Scribonius Libo]] who was a follower of Pompeius as well as his father-in-law.<ref name="eck 20"/> Scribonia conceived Octavian's only natural child, [[Julia the Elder|Julia]], who was born the same day that he divorced Scribonia to marry [[Livia|Livia Drusilla]], little more than a year after his marriage.<ref name="eck 20"/> |
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While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with [[Cleopatra VII|Cleopatra]] and had fathered three children with her.<ref>[[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene II]] and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]</ref> Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to [[Brundisium]]. However, this new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony. Their [[centurion]]s, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit.<ref name="eck 21">Eck (2003) 21.</ref><ref name="ccaa 19">Eder (2005), 19.</ref> Meanwhile in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation.<ref name="eck 21"/><ref name="ccaa 19"/> In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East.<ref name="eck 21"/> To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sister, [[Octavia Minor]], in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC.<ref name="eck 21"/> During their marriage, Octavia gave birth to two daughters (known as [[Antonia Major]] and [[Antonia Minor]]). |
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====War with Pompeius==== |
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[[Image:Denarius Sextus Pompeius-Scilla.jpg|thumb|A [[denarius]] of [[Sextus Pompeius]], minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. On the obverse the Pharus of [[Messina]], who defeated Octavian. On the reverse, the monster [[Scylla]]]] |
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{{See|Sicilian revolt}} |
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Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying to the peninsula shipments of grain through the Mediterranean; Pompeius' own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy.<ref name="ccaa 19"/> Pompeius' control over the sea prompted him to take on the name ''Neptuni filius'', "son of [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]]."<ref name="eck 22">Eck (2003), 22.</ref> A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, [[Corsica]], Sicily, and the [[Peloponnese]], and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC.<ref name="ccaa 19"/><ref name="eck 22"/> The territorial agreement amongst the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on 17 January 38 BC.<ref name="eck 23">Eck (2003), 23.</ref> One of Pompeius' naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian. However Octavian needed Antony's additional support to attack Pompeius, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC.<ref>Scullard (1982), 163</ref><ref name="eck 24">Eck (2003), 24.</ref> In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against Parthia, desiring to avenge Rome's [[Battle of Carrhae|defeat at Carrhae]] in 53 BC.<ref name="eck 24"/> In an agreement reached at [[Taranto|Tarentum]], Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 [[Legionary|legionaries]] to Antony for use against Parthia.<ref name="eck 25">Eck (2003), 25.</ref> However, Octavian sent only a tenth the number of those promised, which was viewed by Antony as an intentional provocation.<ref name="eck 25"/> |
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Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC.<ref name="eck 25 26">Eck (2003), 25–26.</ref> Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on 3 September by general Agrippa at the naval [[battle of Naulochus]].<ref name="eck 26"/> Sextus fled with his remaining forces to the east, where he was captured and executed in [[Miletus]] by one of Antony's generals the following year.<ref name="eck 26">Eck (2003), 26.</ref> Both Lepidus and Octavian gathered the surrendered troops of Pompeius, yet Lepidus felt empowered enough to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave.<ref name="eck 26"/> However, Lepidus' troops deserted him and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and found Octavian's promises of money to be enticing.<ref name="eck 26"/> Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and was effectively exiled to a [[villa]] at Cape Circei in Italy.<ref name="eck 26"/><ref>Scullard (1982), 164</ref> The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. To maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire, Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property. This time he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy while returning 30,000 slaves to former Roman owners that had previously fled to Pompeius to join his army and navy.<ref name="eck 26 27">Eck (2003), 26–27.</ref> To ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome, Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister [[tribune|tribunal]] [[Sovereign immunity|immunity]], or ''sacrosanctitas''.<ref name="eck 27 28">Eck (2003), 27–28.</ref> |
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====War with Antony==== |
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{{Main|Final War of the Roman Republic}} |
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[[Image:Lawrence Alma-Tadema- Anthony and Cleopatra.JPG|thumb|''Anthony and Cleopatra'', by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]]]] |
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Meanwhile, Antony's campaign against Parthia turned disastrous, tarnishing his image as a leader, and the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces.<ref name="eck 29">Eck (2003), 29.</ref> On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength, and since he was already engaged in a romantic affair with her, he decided to send Octavia back to Rome.<ref name="eck 29 30">Eck (2003), 29–30.</ref> Octavian used this to spread [[propaganda]] implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental [[Intimate relationship|paramour]]".<ref name="eck 30">Eck (2003), 30.</ref> In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir if only Antony would do the same; Antony refused.<ref name="ccaa 20">Eder (2005), 20.</ref> |
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After Roman troops captured [[Armenia]] in 34 BC, Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia; he also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts which Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome.<ref name="eck 30"/> When Octavian became consul once again on 1 January 33 BC, he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen.<ref name="eck 31">Eck (2003), 31.</ref> Defecting consuls and senators rushed over to the side of Antony in disbelief of the propaganda (which turned out to be true), yet so did able ministers desert Antony for Octavian in the autumn of 32 BC.<ref name="eck 32 34">Eck (2003), 32–34.</ref> These defectors, Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius, gave Octavian the information he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations he made against Antony.<ref name="eck 34">Eck (2003), 34.</ref> By storming the sanctuary of the Vestal Virgins, Octavian forced their chief priestess to hand over Antony's secret will, which would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, alongside plans to build a tomb in [[Alexandria]] for him and his queen to reside upon their deaths.<ref name="eck 34 35">Eck (2003), 34–35</ref><ref name="ccaa 21 22">Eder (2005), 21–22.</ref> In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt.<ref name="eck 35">Eck (2003), 35.</ref><ref name="ccaa 22">Eder (2005), 22.</ref> |
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[[Image:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|left|''The [[Battle of Actium]]'', by Lorenzo Castro, painted 1672, National Maritime Museum, London]] |
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In early 31 BC, while Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece, Octavian gained a preliminary victory when the navy under the command of Agrippa successfully ferried troops across the [[Adriatic Sea]].<ref name="eck 37">Eck (2003), 37.</ref> While Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern [[Corfu]]) and marched south.<ref name="eck 37"/> Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations.<ref name="eck 37"/> In a desperate attempt to break free of the [[Blockade|naval blockade]], Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of [[Actium]] on the western coast of Greece. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and [[Gaius Sosius]] in the [[battle of Actium]] on 2 September 31 BC.<ref name="eck 38">Eck (2003), 38.</ref> Antony and his remaining forces were only spared due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.<ref name="eck 38 39">Eck (2003), 38–39.</ref> Octavian pursued them, and after another defeat in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide; Antony fell on his own sword and into Cleopatra's arms, while she let a poisonous snake bite her.<ref name="eck 39">Eck (2003), 39.</ref> Having exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career, Octavian was only too well aware of the dangers in allowing another to do so and, reportedly commenting that "two Caesars are one too many", he ordered [[Caesarion]] — Julius Caesar's son by Cleopatra — to be killed, whilst sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|older son]].<ref>Green (1990), 697.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 171.</ref> |
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Octavian had previously shown little mercy to military combatants and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.<ref name = "eck 49"/> |
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== Octavian becomes Augustus == |
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[[File:Octavian aureus circa 30 BCE.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Aureus]] of Octavian, circa 30 BC, [[British Museum]]]] |
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After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial [[principate]],<ref name="ccaa 34 35">Gruen (2005), 34–35.</ref> but would have to achieve this through incremental power gains, courting the Senate and the people, while upholding the republican traditions of Rome, to appear that he was not aspiring to dictatorship or monarchy.<ref name="ccaa 24 25"/><ref name="ccaa 38 39"/> Marching into Rome, Octavian and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]] were elected as dual [[consul]]s by the Senate.<ref name = "eck 45"/> Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the [[Roman province]]s. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least.<ref name="eck 44 45">Eck (2003), 44–45.</ref> |
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=== First settlement === |
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{{Main|Constitution of the Roman Empire|History of the Constitution of the Roman Empire}} |
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[[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|thumb|200px|Augustus as a magistrate; the statue's marble head was made c. 30–20 BC, the body sculpted in the 2nd century AD ([[Louvre]], [[Paris]])]] |
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In [[27 BC]], Octavian made a show of returning full power to the [[Roman Senate]] and relinquishing his control of the Roman provinces and their armies.<ref name="eck 45"/> Under his consulship, however, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing [[Bill (proposed law)|bills]] for senatorial debate.<ref name="eck 45">Eck (2003), 45.</ref> Although Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike.<ref name="eck 45"/> The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power in the Roman Republic was unrivaled.<ref name="eck 45"/> The historian [[Werner Eck]] states: |
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<blockquote>The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his ''auctoritas'', which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions.<ref name="eck 113">Eck (2003), 113.</ref></blockquote> |
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To a large extent the public was aware of the vast financial resources Augustus commanded. When he failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy, he undertook direct responsibility for them in [[20 BC]].<ref name="eck 80">Eck (2003), 80.</ref> This was publicized on the Roman currency issued in [[16 BC]], after he donated vast amounts of money to the ''[[Aerarium|aerarium Saturni]]'', the public treasury.<ref name="eck 80"/> |
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According to H.H. Scullard, however, Augustus's power was based on the exercise of "a predominant military power and [...] the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised."<ref name = "Scullard_p211">Scullard (1982), 211.</ref> |
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The Senate proposed to Octavian, the victor of Rome's civil wars, that he once again assume command of the provinces. The senate's proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the senate Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional [[constitution of the Roman Republic|constitution]]. Feigning reluctance, he accepted a ten-year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered chaotic.<ref name="eck 46">Eck (2003), 46.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 210.</ref> The provinces ceded to him, that he might pacify them within the promised ten-year period, comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of [[Hispania]] and [[Gaul]], [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], [[Cilicia]], [[Cyprus]], and [[Ægyptus|Egypt]].<ref name="eck 46"/><ref name="ccaa 34">Gruen (2005), 34.</ref> Moreover, command of these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions.<ref name="ccaa 34"/><ref name="eck 47">Eck (2003), 47.</ref> |
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While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure his orders were carried out.<ref name="eck 47"/> On the other hand, the provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate.<ref name="eck 47"/> Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, but did not have sole monopoly on political and martial power.<ref name="ccaa 24"/> The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional [[Roman agriculture|producer of grain]], as well as [[Illyria]] and Macedonia, two martially strategic regions with several legions.<ref name="ccaa 24"/> However, with control of only five or six legions distributed amongst three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the twenty legions under the control of Augustus, the Senate's control of these regions did not amount to any political or martial challenge to Octavian.<ref name="ccaa 24 25">CCAA, 24–25.</ref><ref name = "Scullard_p211"/> The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican façade for the autocratic Principate.<ref name="ccaa 24 25"/> Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces for the objective of securing peace and creating stability followed Republican-era precedents, in which such prominent Romans as [[Pompey]] had been granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability.<ref name="ccaa 24 25"/> |
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[[Image:Augustus Bevilacqua Glyptothek Munich 317.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Bust of Augustus, wearing the [[Civic Crown]]. [[Glyptothek]], [[Munich]].]] |
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In January of 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' and ''[[Princeps]]''.<ref name="eck 50">Eck (2003), 50.</ref> ''Augustus,'' from the Latin word ''Augere'' (meaning to increase), can be translated as "the illustrious one".<ref name="eck 49">Eck (2003), 49.</ref> It was a title of religious rather than political authority.<ref name="eck 49"/> According to Roman religious beliefs, the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity—and in fact nature—that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name would also serve to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than ''Romulus'', the previous one he styled for himself in reference to the story of [[Romulus and Remus]] (founders of Rome), which would symbolize a second founding of Rome.<ref name="eck 49"/> However, the title of ''Romulus'' was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image Octavian tried to avoid.<ref name="eck 149">Eck (2003), 149</ref> ''Princeps'', comes from the Latin phrase ''primum caput'', "the first head", originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial [[roster]]; in the case of Augustus it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge.<ref>Eck (2003), 3, 149.</ref> ''Princeps'' had also been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, [[Pompey]] had held the title. Augustus also styled himself as ''Imperator Caesar divi filius'', "Commander Caesar son of the deified one".<ref name="eck 50"/> With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of ''[[Imperator]]'' signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory.<ref name="eck 50"/> The word ''Caesar'' was merely a [[cognomen]] for one branch of the [[Julius|Julian family]], yet Augustus transformed ''Caesar'' into a new family line that began with him.<ref name="eck 50"/> |
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Augustus was granted the right to hang the ''[[corona civica]]'', the "civic crown" made from oak, above his door and have laurels drape his doorposts.<ref name="ccaa 24">Eder (2005), 24.</ref> This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a [[Roman triumph|triumph]], with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat "''[[memento mori]]''", or, "Remember, you are mortal", to the triumphant general. Additionally, laurel wreaths were important in several state ceremonies, and crowns of laurel were rewarded to champions of athletic, racing, and dramatic contests. Thus, both the laurel and the oak were integral symbols of Roman religion and statecraft; placing them on Augustus' doorposts was tantamount to declaring his home the capital. However, Augustus renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a [[scepter]], wearing a [[diadem (personal wear)|diadem]], or wearing the golden crown and purple [[toga]] of his predecessor Julius Caesar.<ref name="ccaa 13">Eder (2005), 13.</ref> If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the [[Curia]], bearing the inscription ''virtus'', ''pietas'', ''clementia'', ''iustitia''—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice."<ref name="eck 3">Eck (2003), 3.</ref><ref name="ccaa 24"/> |
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===Second settlement=== |
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In 23 BC, there was a political crisis that involved Augustus' co-consul Terentius Varro Murena, who was part of a conspiracy against Augustus. The exact details of the conspiracy are unknown, yet Murena did not serve a full term as consul before Calpurnius Piso was elected to replace him.<ref name="ccaa 25">Eder (2005), 25.</ref><ref name="eck 55">Eck (2003), 55.</ref> Piso was a well known member of the republican faction, and serving as co-consul with him was another means by Augustus to show his willingness to make concessions and cooperate with all political parties.<ref name="eck 55 56">Eck (2003), 55–56.</ref> In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would put in doubt the senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism.<ref name="ccaa 25"/><ref name="eck 56">Eck (2003), 56.</ref> Augustus prepared to hand down his [[Seal (device)#Signet rings|signet ring]] to his favored general Agrippa.<ref name="ccaa 25"/><ref name="eck 56"/> However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] came away empty-handed.<ref name="ccaa 25"/><ref name="eck 56"/> This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor.<ref name="ccaa 38">Gruen (2005), 38.</ref> Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as a system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility amongst the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy.<ref name="ccaa 38 39">Gruen (2005), 38–39.</ref> |
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[[Image:Cameo August BM Gem3577.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Portrait of Augustus wearing a ''[[gorgoneion]]'' on a three layered [[sardonyx]] cameo, AD 14–20]] |
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Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his permanent consulship.<ref name="eck 56"/> The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC.<ref name="eck 56"/><ref name="ccaa 26">Eder (2005), 26.</ref> Although he had resigned as consul, Augustus retained his consular ''[[imperium]]'', leading to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement.<ref name="eck 57">Eck (2003), 57.</ref> This was a clever ploy by Augustus; by stepping down as one of two consuls, this allowed aspiring senators a better chance to fill that position, while at the same time Augustus could "exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class."<ref name="ccaa 36"/> Augustus was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position over the Roman provinces remained unchanged as he became a [[proconsul]].<ref name="eck 56"/><ref name="ccaa 37">Gruen (2005), 37.</ref> Earlier as a consul he had the power to intervene, when he deemed necessary, with the affairs of provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate.<ref name="eck 56 57">Eck (2003), 56–57.</ref> As a proconsul Augustus did not want this authority of overriding provincial governors to be stripped from him, so ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or "power over all the proconsuls" was granted to Augustus by the Senate.<ref name="eck 57"/> |
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Augustus was also granted the power of a [[tribune]] (''tribunicia potestas'') for life, though not the official title of tribune.<ref name="eck 57"/> Legally it was closed to [[Patrician (Ancient Rome)|patricians]], a status that Augustus had acquired years ago when adopted by Julius Caesar.<ref name="ccaa 36">Gruen (2005), 36.</ref> This allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting.<ref name="ccaa 26"/><ref name="eck 57 58">Eck (2003), 57–58.</ref> Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the [[Roman censor]]; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a [[census]] and determine the membership of the Senate.<ref name="eck 59">Eck (2003), 59.</ref> With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all other attire besides the classic [[toga]] while entering the Forum.<ref name="ccaa 30">Eder (2005), 30.</ref> There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor.<ref name="bunson 80">Bunson (1994), 80.</ref> [[Julius Caesar]] had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state, however this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the ''tribune plebis'' began to lose its prestige due to Augustus' amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the [[praetor]]ship.<ref name="bunson 427">Bunson (1994), 427.</ref> |
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[[Image:CaesarAugustusPontiusMaximusCloseup.jpg|thumb|150px|The ''[[Via Labicana Augustus]]'' – Augustus as [[Pontifex Maximus]].]] |
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In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the [[prefect]]s and consuls, were now under the sole authority of Augustus.<ref name="eck 60">Eck (2003), 60.</ref> With ''maius imperium proconsulare'', Augustus was the only individual able to receive a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army.<ref name="eck 61">Eck (2003), 61.</ref> In 19 BC, [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus the Younger|Lucius Cornelius Balbus]], governor of Africa and conqueror of the [[Garamantes]], was the first man of provincial origin to receive this award, as well as the last.<ref name="eck 61"/> For every following Roman victory the credit was given to Augustus, due to the fact that Rome's armies were commanded by the [[legatus]], who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces.<ref name="eck 61"/> Augustus' eldest son by marriage to Livia, [[Tiberius]], was the only exception to this rule when he received a triumph for victories in [[Germania]] in 7 BC.<ref name="eck 117">Eck (2003), 117.</ref> Ensuring that his status of ''maius imperium proconsulare'' was renewed in 13 BC, Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support.<ref name="ccaa 26"/> |
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Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, fears arose once again that Augustus was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus.<ref>Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#1 54.1], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#6 6], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#10 10].</ref> In 22 BC there was a food shortage in Rome which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis.<ref name="ccaa 26"/> After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular ''imperium''", and ended the crisis almost immediately.<ref name="ccaa 26"/> It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a ''praefectus annonae'', a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome.<ref name="eck 78">Eck (2003), 78.</ref> In 19 BC, the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,<ref name="eck 60"/> as well as sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the [[fasces]], an emblem of consular authority.<ref name="ccaa 43">Gruen (2005), 43.</ref> Like his tribune authority, the granting of consular powers to him was another instance of holding power of offices he did not actually hold.<ref name="ccaa 43"/> This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. On 6 March 12 BC, after the death of [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Lepidus]], he additionally took up the position of [[pontifex maximus]], the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most important position in Roman religion.<ref>Bowersock (1990), p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/2*.html#10 10.2]. Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/54*.html#27.2 27.2] reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock (1990), p. 383).</ref><ref name="ccaa 28">Eder (2005), 28.</ref> On 5 February 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title ''[[pater patriae]]'', or "father of the country".<ref>Mackay (2004), 186.</ref><ref name="eck 129">Eck (2003), 129.</ref> |
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Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted them by the Senate. The civic crown, which later Emperors took to actually wearing, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (''[[toga picta]]'') became the imperial insignia well into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era. |
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==War and expansion == |
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{{Main|Wars of Augustus}} |
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[[Image:Augusto 30aC - 6dC 55%CS jpg.JPG|thumb|285px|Extent of the Roman Empire under Augustus; the yellow legend represents the extent of the Empire in 31 BC, the shades of green represent gradually conquered territories under the reign of Augustus, and pink areas on the map represent [[client state]]s; however, areas under Roman control shown here were subject to change even during Augustus' reign, especially in [[Germania]].]] |
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{{See|Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids}} |
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''Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus'' chose ''Imperator'', "victorious commander" to be his first name, since he wanted to make the notion of victory associated with him emphatically clear.<ref name="eck 93">Eck (2003), 93.</ref> By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle.<ref name="eck 93"/> Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly released memoirs of achievements known as the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]'' was devoted to his military victories and honors.<ref name="eck 93"/> Augustus also promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (the extent to which the Romans knew it), a sentiment embodied in words that the contemporary poet [[Virgil]] attributes to a legendary ancestor of Augustus: ''tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento''—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the Earth's peoples!"<ref name="ccaa 30"/> The impulse for [[expansionism]], apparently prominent among all classes at Rome, is accorded divine sanction by Virgil's Jupiter, who in Book 1 of the ''[[Aeneid]]'' promises Rome ''imperium sine fine'', "sovereignty without limit".<ref name="eck 95">Eck (2003), 95.</ref> |
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[[Image:Tiberius NyCarlsberg01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Bust of [[Tiberius]], a successful military commander under Augustus before he was designated as his heir and successor]] |
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By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern [[Hispania]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]),<ref name="eck 94">Eck (2003), 94.</ref> the [[Alps|Alpine]] regions of [[Raetia]] and [[Noricum]] (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia),<ref name="eck 94"/> [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Pannonia]] (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc.),<ref name="eck 94"/> and extended the borders of the [[Africa Province]] to the east and south.<ref name="eck 94"/> After the reign of the [[client state|client king]] [[Herod the Great]] (73–4 BC), [[Iudaea Province|Judea]] was added to the [[Syria (Roman province)|province of Syria]] when Augustus deposed his successor [[Herod Archelaus]].<ref name="eck 94"/> Like Egypt which had been conquered after the defeat of Antony in 30 BC, Syria was governed not by a proconsul or legate of Augustus, but a high prefect of the equestrian class.<ref name="eck 94"/> Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when [[Galatia]] (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after [[Amyntas of Galatia]] was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada.<ref name="eck 94"/> When the rebellious tribes of [[Cantabria]] in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and [[Lusitania]].<ref name="eck 97">Eck (2003), 97.</ref> This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus' future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman [[mining]] projects, especially the very rich [[gold]] deposits at [[Las Medulas]] for example.<ref name="eck 97"/> |
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Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in [[Germania]] to the north.<ref name="eck 98">Eck (2003), 98.</ref> The poet [[Horace]] dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monument [[Trophy of Augustus]] near [[Monaco]] was built to honor the occasion.<ref name="eck 98 99">Eck (2003), 98–99.</ref> The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when [[Tiberius]] began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum and his brother [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] against the Germanic tribes of the eastern [[Rhineland]].<ref name="eck 99">Eck (2003), 99.</ref> Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus' forces reached the [[Elbe]] River by 9 BC, yet he died shortly after by falling off his horse.<ref name="eck 99"/> It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome.<ref name="bunson 416"/> |
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[[Image:Panorámica de Las Médulas.jpg|thumb|[[Gold mine]] of [[Las Médulas]]]] |
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To protect Rome's eastern territories from the [[Parthian Empire]], Augustus relied on the [[client state]]s of the east to act as territorial [[Buffer state|buffers]] and areas which could raise their own troops for defense.<ref name="eck 96">Eck (2003), 96.</ref> To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East.<ref name="eck 96"/> Tiberius was responsible for restoring [[Tigranes V of Armenia|Tigranes V]] to the throne of [[Kingdom of Armenia|Armenia]].<ref name="bunson 416"/> Yet arguably his greatest diplomatic achievement was negotiating with [[Phraates IV of Parthia]] (37-2 BC) in 20 BC for the return of the [[Vexilloid|battle standards]] lost by [[Crassus]] in the [[Battle of Carrhae]], a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome.<ref name="bunson 416">Bunson (1994), 416.</ref><ref name="eck 96"/><ref>Brosius (2006), 96-97, 136-138.</ref> Werner Eck claims that this was a great disappointment for Romans seeking to avenge Crassus' defeat by military means.<ref name="eck 95 96">Eck (2003), 95–96.</ref> However, Maria Brosius explains that Augustus used the return of the standards as [[propaganda]] symbolizing the submission of Parthia to Rome. The event was celebrated in art such as the breastplate design on the statue [[Augustus of Prima Porta]] and in monuments such as the [[Forum of Augustus|Temple of Mars Ultor]] ('[[Mars (mythology)|Mars the Avenger]]') built to house the standards.<ref>Brosius (2006), 97; see also Bivar (1983), 66-67.</ref> |
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Although Parthia always posed a threat to Rome in the east, the real battlefront was along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers.<ref name="eck 96"/> Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in [[Dalmatia]] was the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube.<ref name="rowell 13">Rowell (1962), 13.</ref> Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania.<ref name="eck 96"/> A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the [[Battle of Teutoburg Forest]] in AD 9, where three entire legions led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] were destroyed with few survivors by [[Arminius]], leader of the [[Cherusci]], an apparent Roman ally.<ref name="eck 101 102">Eck (2003), 101–102.</ref> Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which had some success although the battle of AD 9 brought the end to Roman expansion into Germany.<ref name="bunson 417">Bunson (1994), 417.</ref> The Roman general [[Germanicus]] took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and [[Segestes]]; they defeated Arminius, who fled that battle but was killed later in 19 due to treachery.<ref name="Bunson 31">Bunson (1994), 31.</ref> |
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==Death and succession== |
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[[Image:Augustus Tiberius aureus.png|left|thumb|Roman [[aureus]] struck under Augustus, ''c.'' AD 13–14; the reverse shows [[Tiberius]] riding on a [[quadriga]], celebrating the fifteenth renewal of his tribunician power. At least six potential heirs, including Agrippa and his sons, had expired or proven incapable of succeeding Augustus, before he finally settled on Tiberius in AD 9.]] |
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The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy.<ref name="ccaa 50"/> If someone was to succeed his unofficial position of power, they were going to have to earn it through their own publicly proven merits.<ref name="ccaa 50">Gruen (2005), 50.</ref> Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]], who had been quickly married to Augustus' daughter [[Julia the Elder]].<ref name="eck 114 115">Eck (2003), 114–115.</ref> Other historians dispute this due to Augustus' will read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,<ref name="eck 115">Eck (2003), 115.</ref> instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus' second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together.<ref name="ccaa 44"/> After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Vipsania Julia]], [[Agrippina the Elder]], and [[Agrippa Postumus|Postumus Agrippa]], so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the ''imperium'' of a proconsul and the same ''tribunicia potestas'' granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus' authority), his seat of governance stationed at [[Samos Island|Samos]] in the eastern [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]].<ref name="ccaa 44">Gruen (2005), 44.</ref><ref name="eck 58">Eck (2003), 58.</ref> Although this granting of power would have shown Augustus' favor for Agrippa, it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him.<ref name="eck 58"/> |
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Augustus' intent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children.<ref>Syme (1939), 416–417.</ref> He took the consulship in 5 and 2 BC so he could personally usher them into their political careers,<ref>Scullard (1982), 217.</ref> and they were nominated for the consulships of AD 1 and 4.<ref>Syme (1939), 417.</ref> Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, [[Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus]] and [[Tiberius|Tiberius Claudius]], granting them military commands and public office, and seeming to favor Drusus. However, Drusus' marriage to Antonia, Augustus' niece, was a relationship far too embedded within the family to disturb over succession issues.<ref name="eck 116"/> After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Livia's son Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended.<ref name="eck 116">Eck (2003), 116.</ref> While Drusus' marriage to Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage.<ref name="eck 116"/> |
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[[Image:Augustuksen mauseleomi.JPG|thumb|[[Mausoleum of Augustus]]]] |
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Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to [[Rhodes]].<ref name="eck 117"/><ref name="ccaa 46">Gruen (2005), 46.</ref> Although no specific reason is known for his departure, it could have been a combination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia.<ref name="eck 117"/><ref name="ccaa 46"/> It could very well have been from feelings of jealousy and being left out since Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Gaius and Lucius, joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul.<ref name="eck 117 118">Eck (2003), 117–118.</ref><ref name="ccaa 46 47">Gruen (2005), 46–47.</ref> After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew [[Germanicus]].<ref name="eck 119">Eck (2003), 119.</ref> This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs.<ref name="eck 116"/> In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of ''imperium'' with that of Augustus.<ref name="eck 119 120">Eck (2003), 119–120.</ref> The only other possible claimant as heir was [[Agrippa Postumus|Postumus Agrippa]], who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him.<ref name="ccaa 49"/> He certainly fell out of Augustus' favor as an heir; the historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character."<ref name="ccaa 49">Gruen (2005), 49.</ref> Postumus Agrippa was murdered at his place of exile either shortly before or after the death of Augustus. |
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On 19 August AD 14, Augustus died while visiting the place of his father's death at [[Nola]], and Tiberius—who was present alongside Livia at Augustus' deathbed—was named his heir.<ref name="eck 123">Eck (2003), 123.</ref> Augustus' famous last words were, "Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit"—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. Publicly, though, his last words were, "Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble." An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus' body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day.<ref name="eck 123"/> Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two ''[[rostra]]''.<ref name="eck 124">Eck (2003), 124.</ref> Coffin-bound, Augustus' body was cremated on a pyre close to [[Mausoleum of Augustus|his mausoleum]]. It was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].<ref name="eck 124"/> In 410, during the [[Sack of Rome]], the mausoleum was despoiled by the Goths and his ashes scattered. |
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The historian D.C.A. Shotter states that Augustus' policy of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian might have afforded Tiberius sufficient cause to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus.<ref>Shotter (1966), 210–212.</ref> Shotter suggests that Augustus' deification, coupled with Tiberius' "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion, obliged Tiberius to suppress any open resentment he might have harbored.<ref name="shotter 211">Shotter (1966), 211.</ref> Also, the historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits.<ref name="shaw-smith 213"/> Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on [[Gaius Asinius Gallus]] (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her) as well as the two young Caesars Gaius and Lucius, instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion.<ref name="shotter 211"/> |
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==Legacy== |
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{{See|Augustus in popular culture}} |
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[[File:aug11 01.jpg|thumb|Laureate bust of Augustus]] |
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Augustus' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted hundreds of years until the ultimate [[decline of the Roman Empire]]. Both his adoptive surname, Caesar, and his title ''Augustus'' became the permanent titles of the rulers of [[Roman Empire]] for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at [[Rome|Old Rome]] and at [[Constantinople|New Rome]]. In many languages, ''caesar'' became the word for ''emperor'', as in the German ''[[Kaiser]]'' and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian ''[[Tsar]]''. The cult of ''Divus Augustus'' continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to [[Christianity]] in 391 by [[Theodosius I]]. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]'', to be inscribed in bronze in front of [[Mausoleum of Augustus|his mausoleum]].<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#101.4 101.4].</ref> Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death.<ref name="eck 1 2">Eck (2003), 1–2</ref> The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in [[Ankara]] dubbed the ''Monumentum Ancyranum'', called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian [[Theodor Mommsen]].<ref name="eck 2">Eck (2003), 2.</ref> There are a few known written works by Augustus that have survived. This includes his poems ''Sicily'', ''Epiphanus'', and ''Ajax'', an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus' ''Eulogy of Cato''.<ref name="bunson 47">Bunson (1994), 47.</ref> However, historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life.<ref name="shaw-smith 213">Shaw-Smith (1971), 213.</ref><ref>Bourne (1918), 53–66.</ref> |
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Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated ''Pax Romana'' or ''Pax Augusta''. He was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as [[Julius Caesar]], and was influenced on occasion by his third wife, Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized [[History of criminal justice|police force]], [[fire fighting]] force, and the establishment of the municipal [[prefect]] as a permanent office.<ref name="eck 79"/> The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors.<ref name="eck 79"/> A ''praefectus vigilum'', or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the [[vigiles]], Rome's fire brigade and police.<ref name="bunson 345">Bunson (1994), 345.</ref> With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a [[standing army]] for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers.<ref name="eck 85 86">Eck (2003), 85–87.</ref> This was supported by numerous [[auxiliaries (Roman military)|auxiliary]] units of 500 soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas.<ref name="eck 86">Eck (2003), 86.</ref> With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official [[courier]] system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the ''praefectus vehiculorum''.<ref name="eck 81"/> Besides the advent of swifter communication amongst Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country.<ref name="chisholm 122">Chisholm (1981), 122.</ref> In the year 6 Augustus established the ''aerarium militare'', donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers.<ref name="bunson 6">Bunson (1994), 6.</ref> One of the most lasting institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the [[Praetorian Guard]] in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome.<ref name="bunson 341">Bunson (1994), 341.</ref> They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was [[Maxentius]], as it was [[Constantine I]] who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the [[Castra Praetoria]].<ref name="bunson 341 342">Bunson (1994), 341–342.</ref> |
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[[Image:Augustus-in-Kalabsha.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Augustus in an Egyptian-style depiction, a stone carving of the [[New Kalabsha|Kalabsha Temple]] in [[Nubia]]]] |
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Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus paid 400 [[sestertius|sesterces]] each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon.<ref name="ccaa 23"/> He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the [[Roman mythology|Roman pantheon]] of deities.<ref name="ccaa 23">Eder (2005), 23.</ref> In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest.<ref name="ccaa 23"/> |
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The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As [[Tacitus]] wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate.<ref>Tacitus, ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 1#3|I.3]]</ref> Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a [[de facto]] monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title.<ref name="eck 124"/> The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire.<ref name="kelsall 120">Kelsall (1976), 120.</ref> However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist [[Marcus Antistius Labeo]] (d. 10 or 11 AD), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican [[liberty]] in which he had been born, openly criticized the Augustan regime.<ref name="starr 5">Starr (1952), 5.</ref> In the beginning of his ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'', the Roman historian [[Tacitus]] (c. 56–c.117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery.<ref name="starr 5"/> He continued to say that, with Augustus' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another.<ref name="starr 5"/> Tacitus, however, records two contradictory but common views of Augustus: |
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[[Image:0005MAN-OctAugusto.jpg|thumb|Fragment of a bronze equestrian statue of Augustus, 1st century AD]] |
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{{quote|Intelligent people praised or criticized him in varying ways. One opinion was as follows. Filial duty and a national emergency, in which there was no place for law-abiding conduct, had driven him to civil war--and this can neither be initiated nor maintained by decent methods. He had made many concessions to Anthony and to Lepidus for the sake of vengeance on his father's murderers. When Lepidus grew old and lazy, and Anthony's self-indulgence got the better of him, the only possible cure for the distracted country had been government by one man. However, Augustus had put the state in order not by making himself king or dictator, but by creating the Principate. The empire's frontiers were on the ocean, or distant rivers. Armies, provinces, fleets, the whole system was interrelated. Roman citizens were protected by the law. Provincials were decently treated. Rome itself had been lavishly beautified. Force had been sparingly used--merely to preserve peace for the majority.<ref>Tacitus, The Annals, I 9</ref>}} |
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According to the second opposing opinion: |
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{{quote|filial duty and national crisis had been merely pretexts. In actual fact, the motive of Octavian, the future Augustus, was lust for power...There had certainly been peace, but it was a blood-stained peace of disasters and assassinations.<ref>Tacitus, The Annals, I 10</ref>}} |
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In a recent biography on Augustus, Anthony Everitt asserts that through the centuries, judgments on Augustus' reign have oscillated between these two extremes but stresses that: |
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{{quote|"Opposites do not have to be mutually exclusive, and we are not obliged to choose one or the other. The story of his career shows that Augustus was indeed ruthless, cruel, and ambitious for himself. This was only in part a personal trait, for upper-class Romans were educated to compete with one another and to excel. However, he combined an overriding concern for his personal interests with a deep-seated patriotism, based on a nostalgia of Rome's antique virtues. In his capacity as ''princeps'', selfishness and selflessness coexisted in his mind. While fighting for dominance, he paid little attention to legality or to the normal civilities of political life. He was devious, untrustworthy, and bloodthirsty. But once he had established his authority, he governed efficiently and justly, generally allowed freedom of speech, and promoted the rule of law. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any [[Democracy in Ancient Rome|democratic]] parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. He suffered from no delusions of grandeur."<ref>Everitt (2006), 324–325.</ref>}} |
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Tacitus was of the belief that [[Nerva]] (r. 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty."<ref name="starr 6">Starr (1952), 6.</ref> The 3rd century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an [[autocrat]].<ref name="starr 5"/> The poet [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus]] (39–65 AD) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of [[Cato the Younger]] (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly."<ref name="starr 6"/> |
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The [[Anglo-Irish]] writer [[Jonathan Swift]] (1667–1745), in his ''Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome'', criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed [[Great Britain]]'s virtuous [[constitutional monarchy]] to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC.<ref name="kelsall 118">Kelsall (1976), 118.</ref> In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian [[Thomas Gordon (Royal Scots Navy officer)|Thomas Gordon]] (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant [[Oliver Cromwell]] (1599–1658).<ref name="kelsall 118"/> Thomas Gordon and the [[France|French]] political philosopher [[Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle.<ref name="kelsall 119">Kelsall (1976), 119.</ref> In his ''Memoirs of the Court of Augustus'', the [[Scotland|Scottish]] scholar [[Thomas Blackwell]] (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a [[Machiavellianism|Machiavellian ruler]], "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant".<ref name="kelsall 119"/> |
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===Revenue reforms=== |
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[[Image:AugustusCoinPudukottaiHoardIndia.jpg|thumb|100px|Coin of Augustus found at the [[Pudukottai]] hoard, from an [[ancient Tamil country]], [[Pandyan Kingdom]] of present day [[Tamil Nadu]] in [[India]]. [[British Museum]].]] |
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[[Image:AugustusIndianImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|100px|Indian imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st century. [[British Museum]].]] |
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[[Image:HymiariteKingdomAugustusImitation1stCenturyCE.jpg|thumb|100px|Coin of the [[Himyarite]] Kingdom, southern coast of the [[Arabian peninsula]]. This is also an imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st century.]] |
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Augustus' public [[revenue]] reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus' predecessors had done.<ref name="eck 83 84"/> This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute.<ref name="eck 83 84">Eck (2003), 83–84.</ref> The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population [[census]], with fixed quotas for each province.<ref name="bunson 404">Bunson (1994), 404.</ref> Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces.<ref name="bunson 404"/> Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the [[next of kin]].<ref name="bunson 404"/> |
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An equally important reform was the abolition of private [[tax farming]], which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors that raised taxes had been the norm in the Republican era, and some had grown powerful enough to influence the amount of votes for politicians in Rome.<ref name="eck 83 84"/> The tax farmers had gained great infamy for their depredations, as well as great private wealth, by winning the right to tax local areas.<ref name="eck 83 84"/> Rome's revenue was the amount of the successful bids, and the tax farmers' profits consisted of any additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome's blessing. Lack of effective supervision, combined with tax farmers' desire to maximize their profits, had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was often barbarously cruel to taxpayers, widely (and accurately) perceived as unfair, and very harmful to investment and the economy. |
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The use of [[Ægyptus|Egypt]]'s immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government.<ref name="bunson 144">Bunson (1994), 144.</ref> As it was effectively considered Augustus' private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium.<ref name="bunson 144 145">Bunson (1994), 144–145.</ref> Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming [[Praetorian prefect|Prefect of the Praetorian Guard]].<ref name="bunson 145">Bunson (1994), 145.</ref> The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions,<ref name="bunson 144"/> as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome. |
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===Month of August=== |
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The month of [[August]] (Latin: ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original [[Roman calendar]] and the Latin word for six was ''sex''). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of [[Julius Caesar]]'s July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]). According to a ''senatus consultum'' quoted by [[Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius|Macrobius]], Sextilis was renamed to honor Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of [[Alexandria]], fell in that month.<ref>[[Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius|Macrobius]], ''Saturnalia'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/1*.html#12.35 1.12.35].</ref> (Note that it was not his birthday month.) |
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===Building projects=== |
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{{Main|:Category:Augustan building projects}} |
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{{See|Vitruvius|De architectura}} |
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[[Image:RomaAraPacisDecorazioneVegetale.jpg|thumb|Close up on the sculpted detail of the [[Ara Pacis]] (Altar of Peace), 13 BC to 9 BC.]] |
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On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found Rome of bricks; I leave it to you of marble". Although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, [[Cassius Dio]] asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength.<ref name="dio 56.30.3">Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/56*.html#30 56.30.3]</ref> [[Marble]] could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus.<ref name="bunson 34"/> Although this did not apply to the [[Subura]] slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the [[Campus Martius]], with the [[Ara Pacis]] (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central [[gnomon]] was an [[obelisks of Rome|obelisk]] taken from Egypt.<ref name="eck 122">Eck (2003), 122.</ref> The [[relief]] sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus' triumphs in the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti|Res Gestae]]''.<ref name="bunson 32">Bunson (1994), 32.</ref> Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the [[praetor]]ians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome.<ref name="bunson 32"/> He also built the [[Temple of Caesar]], the [[Baths of Agrippa]], and the [[Forum of Augustus]] with its [[Temple of Mars Ultor]]. Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor)|Theatre of Balbus]], and Agrippa's construction of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (e.g. [[Porticus Octaviae|Portico of Octavia]], [[Theatre of Marcellus]]). Even his [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] was built before his death to house members of his family.<ref name="eck 118 121">Eck (2003), 118–121</ref> To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the [[Arch of Augustus]] was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the [[Temple of Castor and Pollux]], and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design.<ref name="bunson 34"/> There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus' name and legacy, such as the [[Merida, Spain|Theatre of Merida]] in modern Spain, the [[Maison Carrée]] built at [[Nîmes]] in today's southern France, as well as the [[Trophy of Augustus]] at [[La Turbie]], located near [[Monaco]]. |
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[[Image:Vienne-RomanTemple2.JPG|thumb|left|The Temple of Augustus and Livia in [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]], late 1st century BC.]] |
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After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense.<ref name="eck 79">Eck (2003), 79.</ref> In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair.<ref name="eck 79"/> In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the ''curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum'' (translated as "Supervisors of Public Property") was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult.<ref name="eck 79"/> Augustus created the senatorial group of the ''curatores viarum'' (translated as "Supervisors for Roads") for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs.<ref name="eck 81">Eck (2003), 81.</ref> |
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The [[Corinthian order]] of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome.<ref name="bunson 34">Bunson (1994), 34.</ref> [[Suetonius]] once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model.<ref name="bunson 34"/> |
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==Physical appearance== |
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The biographer [[Suetonius]] describes Augustus' outward appearance as follows: "He was unusually handsome ... He had clear, bright eyes ... His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclining to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent ever so slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature ..."<ref>Suetonius, ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#79 79], translated by [[John Carew Rolfe|J. C. Rolfe]].</ref> |
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==Ancestry== |
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<div style="background: #ccddcc; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #667766" class="NavHead">'''Ancestors of Augustus ''' |
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|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |
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|1= 1. '''Augustus ''' |
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|2= 2. [[Gaius Octavius]] |
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|3= 3. [[Atia Balba Caesonia]] |
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|4= 4. Gaius Octavius (magistrate) |
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|6= 6. [[Marcus Atius]] |
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|7= 7. [[Julia Caesaris (sister of Julius Caesar)]] |
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|12= 12. Marcus Atius Balbus |
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|13= 13. [[Pompeia (sister of Pompeius Strabo)]] |
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|14= 14. [[Gaius Julius Caesar (proconsul of Asia, 90s BC)]] |
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|15= 15. [[Aurelia Cotta]] |
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|26= 26. Sextus Pompeius |
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|27= 27. Lucilia |
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|28= 28. [[Gaius Julius Caesar II]] |
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|29= 29. Marcia |
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|30= 30. Lucius Aurelius Cotta |
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|31= 31. Rutilia |
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}}</center> |
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</div></div> |
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==Descendants== |
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Augustus's only child was his daughter. His sixth great-grandson Gaius Avidus Cassius (ca. 130-175 AD) had four children. The youngest daughter bore a daughter who married and had a daughter. Whether there were any descendants of Augustus after the early decades of the 3rd century, is unknown. |
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:1. [[Julia the Elder]], 39BC - AD14, had 5 children; |
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::A. [[Gaius Caesar]], 20BC - AD4, died without issue |
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::B. [[Julia the Younger]], 19BC - AD28, had 2 children; |
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:::I. [[Aemilia Lepida (fiancee of Claudius)]], 4BC - AD53, had 5 children; |
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::::a. [[Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus]], 14 - 54, had 1 child; |
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:::::i. [[Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus]] the younger, 50 - 66, died young |
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::::b. [[Junia Calvina]], 15 - 79, died without issue |
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::::c. [[Decimus Junius Silanus Torquatus]], d. 64 without issue |
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::::d. [[Lucius Junius Silanus Torquatus]] the elder, d. 49 without issue |
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::::e. [[Junia Lepida]], ca 18 - 65, had 2 children; |
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:::::i. Cassia Longina, ca 35 - ?; had 2 children; |
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::::::i. Domitia Corbula, had 1 child; |
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:::::::i. unknown son |
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::::::ii. [[Domitia Longina]], c. 53 - 130, wife of [[Domitian]] |
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:::::ii. Cassius Lepidus, ca 55 - ?, 1 child; |
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::::::i. Cassia Lepida, ca 80 - ?; had 1 child; |
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:::::::i. Julia Cassia Alexandria, had 1 child; |
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::::::::i. [[Gaius Avidius Cassius]], ca 130 - 175; had 3 children; |
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:::::::::i. Avidius Heliodorus |
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:::::::::ii. Avidius Maecianus |
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:::::::::iii. Avidia Alexandria |
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:::II. [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (executed 39)]], 6 - 39, died without issue |
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::C. [[Lucius Caesar]], 17BC - AD2, died without issue |
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::D. [[Agrippina the Elder]], 14BC - AD33, had 6 children; |
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:::I. [[Nero Caesar]], 6 - 30, died without issue |
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:::II. [[Drusus Caesar]], 7 - 33, died without issue |
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:::III. [[Caligula]], 12 - 41, had 1 child; |
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::::a. [[Julia Drusilla]], 39 - 41, died young |
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:::IV. [[Agrippina the Younger]], 15 - 59, had 1 child; |
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::::a. [[Nero]], 37 - 68, had 1 child; |
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:::::i. [[Claudia Augusta]], Jan. 63 - April 63; died young |
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:::V. [[Drusilla (sister of Caligula)]], 16 - 38, died without issue |
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:::VI. [[Julia Livilla]], 18 - 42, died without issue |
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::E. [[Agrippa Postumus]], 12BC - AD14, died without issue |
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==See also== |
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* [[Augustan literature]] |
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* [[Augustan poetry]] |
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* [[Gaius Maecenas]] |
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* [[Gaius Octavian (character of Rome)]] |
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* [[Julio-Claudian family tree]] |
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* [[Octavia (gens)]] |
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* [[Roman trade with India]] |
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* [[Comet Caesar]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{Reflist|group=note}} |
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==Footnotes== |
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{{Reflist|colwidth=20em}} |
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==References== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids," in ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' (Vol 3:1), 21-99. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, and Sydney: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20092-X. |
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* Blackburn, Bonnie & Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. (1999). ''The Oxford Companion to the Year''. Oxford University Press. Reprinted with corrections 2003. |
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* Bourne, Ella. "Augustus as a Letter-Writer," ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'' (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66. |
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* {{cite book |last=Bowersock |first=G. W. |editor=Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds.) |title=Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate |year=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-08447-0 |pages=380–394 |chapter=The Pontificate of Augustus }} |
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* Brosius, Maria. (2006). ''The Persians: An Introduction''. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32089-5 (hbk). |
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* Bunson, Matthew. (1994). ''[[Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire]]''. New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3182-7 |
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*Chisholm, Kitty and John Ferguson. (1981). ''Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 0198721080 |
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* [[Cassius Dio|Dio, Cassius]]. (1987) ''The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus''. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-044448-3. |
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* Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) ''The Age of Augustus''. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 0-631-22957-4; paperback, ISBN 0-631-22958-2). |
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* Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition," in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 13–32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). |
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* Everitt, Anthony (2006) ''Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor''. Random House Books. ISBN 1400061288. |
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*{{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age |series=Hellenistic Culture and Society |year=1990 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles; London |isbn=0-520-05611-6 (hbk.); ISBN 0-520-08349-0 (pbk.)}} |
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* Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate," in ''The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World)'', ed. Karl Galinsky, 33–51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8). |
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* Kelsall, Malcolm. "Augustus and Pope," ''The Huntington Library Quarterly'' (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131. |
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* {{cite book|title=Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History|last=Mackay|first=Christopher S.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|isbn=0521809185}} |
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* Scott, Kenneth. "The Political Propaganda of 44-30 B.C." ''Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome'', Vol. 11, (1933), pp. 7–49. |
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* {{cite book |last=Scullard |first=H. H. |title=From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B.C. to A.D. 68 |edition=5th |origyear=1959 |year=1982 |publisher=Routledge |location=London; New York|isbn=0415025273}} |
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* Shaw-Smith, R. "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius," ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214. |
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* Shotter, D.C.A. "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus," ''Greece & Rome'' (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212. |
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* Southern, Pat. (1998). ''Augustus''. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415166314. |
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* Starr, Chester G., Jr. "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire," ''The American Historical Review'' (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16. |
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* {{cite book |last=Syme |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Syme |title=The Roman Revolution |year=1939 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-280320-4 (pbk.)}} |
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* Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). ''The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0956-4 |
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</div> |
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==Further reading== |
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<div class="references-small"> |
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* Bleicken, Jochen. (1998). ''Augustus. Eine Biographie''. Berlin. |
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* Galinsky, Karl. ''Augustan Culture''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-691-05890-3). |
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* Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, ''Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain'', Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169–85 |
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* Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G., ''Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna'', Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59–74. |
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* Jones, A.H.M. "The Imperium of Augustus", ''The Journal of Roman Studies'', Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–119. |
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* Jones, A.H.M. ''Augustus''. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1626-9). |
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* Osgood, Josiah. ''Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire''. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-521-85582-9; paperback, ISBN 0-521-67177-9). |
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* Raaflaub, Kurt A. & Toher, Mark (eds.). ''Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate''. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-08447-0). |
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* Reinhold, Meyer. ''The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity)''. Toronto, ON: Univ. of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-89522-007-5; paperback, ISBN 0-89522-008-3). |
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* Roebuck, C. (1966). ''The World of Ancient Times''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. |
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* Southern, Pat. ''Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies)''. New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-16631-4); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-25855-3). |
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* Zanker, Paul. ''The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures)''. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10101-3); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-08124-1). |
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</div> |
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==External links== |
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{{Sisterlinks|s=Author:Augustus Caesar}} |
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;Primary sources |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation] |
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* [http://ancientrome.ru/art/artworken/result.htm?alt=August&pnumber=30 Gallery of the Ancient Art: August] |
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* [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/humour.html Humor of Augustus] |
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* [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Life of Augustus] by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], English translation |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation] |
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* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html The Res Gestae Divi Augusti] (The Deeds of Augustus, ''his own account'': complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation) |
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* [http://www.viajuliaaugusta.com/en/home.html The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C.] |
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;Secondary source material |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/augustus.shtml Augustus] – short biography at the BBC |
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* Brown, F. [http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Achievements+of+Augustus+Caesar The Achievements of Augustus Caesar], Clio History Journal, 2009. |
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* [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture12b.html "Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana"] – essay by Steven Kreis about Augustus's legacy |
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* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm "De Imperatoribus Romanis"] – article about Augustus at Garrett G. Fagan's online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors |
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* [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/OctavianHome.html Octavian / Augustus] – pages by Yong-Ling Ow |
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==Related information==<!--navbox heading--> |
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{{Start box}} |
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{{S-hou|[[Julio-Claudian dynasty]]|23 September|63 BC|19 August|14 AD }} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Consul]] (''Suffect''.) of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Aulus Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus]]||after=[[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]] and [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]]|years=''[[Quintus Pedius]]''<br /> 43 BC}} |
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{{Succession box|title=[[List of Roman Republican consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Mark Antony|Marcus Antonius]] and [[Lucius Scribonius Libo]] and [[Aemilius Lepidus Paullus]] (''Suffect.'')||after=[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]] |years=''with [[Lucius Volcatius Tullus (consul 33 BC)|Lucius Volcatius Tullus]]''<br />33 BC}} |
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{{Succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|before = [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]]||after = [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus]] and [[Lucius Arruntius]] |years = 31 BC – 23 BC}} |
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{{Succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|before = [[Decius Laelius Balbus]] and [[Gnaeus Antistius Vetus]]||after = [[Gaius Calvisius Sabinus]] and [[Lucius Passienus Rufus]] |years = 5 BC}} |
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{{Succession box|title = [[List of early imperial Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Empire]]|before = [[Lucius Cornelius Lentulus (consul 3 BC)|Lucius Cornelius Lentulus]] and [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus]]||after = [[Cossus Cornelius Lentulus]] and [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso (consul 1 BC)|Lucius Calpurnius Piso]] |years = 2 BC}} |
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{{S-bef|before=[[Julius Caesar]]}} |
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{{S-ttl|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Head of Julio-Claudian Family]]|years=44 BC – AD 14}} |
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{{S-aft|rows=3|after=[[Tiberius]]}} |
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{{S-bef|before=New creation}} |
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{{S-ttl|title=[[Roman Emperor]]|years=27 BC – AD 14}} |
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{{S-bef|before=[[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]}} |
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{{S-ttl|title=[[Pontifex Maximus]]|years=12 BC – AD 14}} |
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{{End box}} |
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{{Roman Emperors}} |
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{{Roman religion}} |
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{{Ancient Roman Wars|state=autocollapse}} |
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{{Pontifices Maximi}} |
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{{Persondata |
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|NAME=Augustus |
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus; Octavian; Gaius Octavius Thurinus |
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|SHORT DESCRIPTION=first [[Roman Emperor]] |
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|DATE OF BIRTH=23 September 63 BC |
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|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Rome]] |
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|DATE OF DEATH={{Death date|df=yes|14|8|19}} |
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|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Nola]] |
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}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Augustus, Caesar}} |
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[[Category:63 BC births]] |
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[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]] |
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[[Category:Iulii]] |
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[[Category:Deified Roman emperors]] |
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[[Category:Republican holders of the role of pontifex maximus]] |
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[[Category:Imperial Roman consuls]] |
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[[Category:People from Rome (city)]] |
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[[Category:Octavii]] |
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[[Category:Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid]] |
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[[als:Augustus]] |
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[[ar:أغسطس قيصر]] |
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[[an:César Augusto]] |
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[[arc:ܐܓܘܣܛܘܣ ܩܣܪ]] |
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[[as:আউগুস্তুস্]] |
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[[ast:César Augustu]] |
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[[az:Oktavian Avqust]] |
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[[bn:সম্রাট আউগুস্তুস]] |
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[[zh-min-nan:Augustus]] |
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[[be:Актавіян Аўгуст]] |
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[[be-x-old:Актавіян Аўгуст]] |
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[[bcl:Caesar Augustus]] |
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[[bar:Augustus]] |
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[[bo:ཨའོ་ཀུའུ་སི་ཏུའུ།]] |
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[[bs:Cezar Augustus]] |
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[[br:Aogust (impalaer)]] |
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[[bg:Октавиан Август]] |
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[[ca:August]] |
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[[el:Οκταβιανός Αύγουστος]] |
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[[es:César Augusto]] |
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[[eo:Aŭgusto Cezaro]] |
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[[eu:Zesar Augusto]] |
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[[fa:آگوستوس]] |
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[[hif:Augustus]] |
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[[fy:Augustus Oktavianus]] |
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[[ga:Ágastas]] |
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[[gl:Octavio Augusto]] |
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[[gan:屋大維]] |
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[[hak:O-kú-sṳ̂-tû]] |
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[[ko:아우구스투스]] |
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[[hy:Օկտավիանոս Օգոստոս]] |
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[[hi:आगस्टस कैसर]] |
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[[hr:August]] |
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[[id:Oktavianus]] |
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[[ia:Cesare Augusto]] |
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[[he:אוגוסטוס קיסר]] |
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[[jv:Augustus]] |
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[[kn:ಅಗಸ್ಟಸ್]] |
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[[ka:ოქტავიანე ავგუსტუსი]] |
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[[sw:Augusto]] |
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[[ku:Sezar Augustus]] |
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[[la:Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus]] |
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[[lt:Augustas]] |
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[[hu:Caius Octavianus Caesar Augustus]] |
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[[mk:Октавијан Август]] |
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[[ml:അഗസ്റ്റസ്]] |
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[[mr:ऑगस्टस]] |
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[[arz:اغسطس (امبراطور)]] |
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[[ms:Augustus]] |
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[[mn:Август Цезарь]] |
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[[my:သြဂတ်စတက်ဆီဇာ]] |
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[[nl:Imperator Caesar Augustus]] |
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[[nn:Augustus av Romarriket]] |
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[[oc:August]] |
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[[pl:Oktawian August]] |
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[[kaa:Oktavian Avgust]] |
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[[ro:Cezar August]] |
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[[ru:Октавиан Август]] |
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[[sm:Aokuso Kaisara]] |
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[[scn:Cesari Augustu]] |
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[[simple:Augustus]] |
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[[sk:Octavianus Augustus]] |
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[[sl:Gaj Avgust Oktavijan]] |
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[[sr:Октавијан Август]] |
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[[sh:August (rimski car)]] |
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[[su:Octavianus]] |
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[[fi:Augustus]] |
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[[sv:Augustus]] |
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[[tl:Cesar Augusto]] |
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[[ta:அகஸ்ட்டஸ்]] |
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[[th:ออกุสตุส ซีซาร์]] |
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[[tr:Caesar Divi Filius Augustus]] |
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[[tk:Awgust (imperator)]] |
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[[uk:Октавіан Август]] |
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[[ur:آگسٹس]] |
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[[vi:Augustus]] |
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[[wa:Impreur Ågusse]] |
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[[zh-classical:奧古斯都]] |
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[[yo:Augustus]] |
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[[zh-yue:奧古斯都]] |
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[[bat-smg:Augosts]] |
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[[zh:屋大维]] |
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Revision as of 12:38, 2 June 2010
Faggot
load of bullshit
Augustus Caesar was alive and well and truly alive. Sadly, he is now dead and well and truly dead. HA
Augustus Caesar was born as plain old Gaius Octavian Caesar, but somehow changed his name.
Augustus Caesar spent his childhood being tortured by TV cameras for the series "ROME", on HBO Jonathan Wong thinks he's good. I think not.