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{{Short description|Government of the Byzantine Empire}}
{{Byzantine culture}}

[[File:Basilios II.jpg|thumb|Painting of Emperor [[Basil&nbsp;II]] in triumphal garb, exemplifying the [[imperial crown]] and royal power handed down by Christ and the angels.]]

Throughout the fifth century, [[Diadochi|Hellenistic political systems]], [[Ancient Greek philosophy|philosophies]], and [[Theocracy|theocratic]] Christian-Eastern concepts had gained power in the eastern Greek-speaking Mediterranean due to the intervention of important religious figures there such as [[Eusebius|Eusebius of Caesarea]] ({{circa|260|339}}) and [[Origen|Origen of Alexandria]] ({{circa|185|253}}) who had been key to developing the constant Christianized worldview of [[late antiquity]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Barnes |first=T. D. |title=Panegyric, history and hagiography in Eusebius' Life of Constantine |date=1989-11-24 |work=The Making of Orthodoxy |pages=94–123 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511555350.007 |isbn=9780521351881}}</ref>{{request quotation|date=January 2023}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lewis |first=V. Bradley |date=2017-04-04 |title=Eusebius of Caesarea's Un-Platonic Platonic Political Theology |journal=Polis: The Journal for Ancient Greek Political Thought |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=94–114 |doi=10.1163/20512996-12340119 |issn=0142-257X |quote=For Eusebius the ''Laws'' mainly shows the agreement of Christian and pagan morality, while his political theory centers on the establishment and maintenance of a Christian empire under a Christian emperor who is a philosopher-king. His view represents one of the fundamental political options in ancient Christianity, one that influenced later Byzantine political theology, but was largely rejected in the west.}}</ref>

By the 6th century, such ideas had already influenced the definitive power of the monarch as the [[Vicar of Christ|representative of God on earth]] and of his kingdom as an imitation of [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|God's holy realm]].{{sfnp|Mango|2007|pp=259–260}} The [[Byzantine Empire]] was a multi-ethnic [[monarchy|monarchic]] [[theocracy]] adopting, following, and applying the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]]-[[Hellenistic kingdoms|Hellenistic political systems]] and [[Hellenistic philosophy|philosophies]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walter |first=Christopher |date=1968 |title=Dvornik (Francis), Early Christian and Byzantine Political Philosophy |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1968_num_26_1_1414_t1_0373_0000_1 |journal=Revue des études byzantines |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=373–376 |access-date=2022-02-28 |url-status=live |archive-date=2019-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525025858/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1968_num_26_1_1414_t1_0373_0000_1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Constantelos |first=Demetrios |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-ecclesiastical-history/article/abs/byzantine-philanthropy-and-social-welfare-by-demetrios-j-constantelos-rutgers-byzantine-series-i-pp-xxviii-356-36-illustrations-4-maps-new-brunswick-nj-rutgers-university-press-1968-1750/4E359EAFABF088FBFF0F056CD312A676 |title=Byzantine Philanthropy and Social Welfare|journal=The Journal of Ecclesiastical History |date=April 1970 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=173–174 |doi=10.1017/S0022046900048703 |s2cid=162224826 }}</ref> The monarch was the incarnation of the law{{emdash}}''[[nomos empsychos]]''{{emdash}}and his power was immeasurable and divine in origin insofar as he channeled God's divine grace, maintaining what is good. He was the ultimate benefactor, caretaker, and saviour of the people: ''[[Euergetism|Evergétis]]'', ''[[Philanthropy|Philanthrōpía]]'', and ''[[Soter|Sōtēr]],'' anointed with all power, upholding the divine laws since he ought to emulate Christ first (''christomimetes'') in all of his divine, pious, loving orthodox attributes to all by being his earthly presence.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Patrick Henry III |date=1967-12-30 |title=A Mirror for Justinian: the ''Ekthesis'' of Agapetus Diaconus |url=https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11081 |journal=Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=281–308 |issn=2159-3159 |access-date=2023-01-24 |archive-date=2023-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230124170441/https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11081 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The basileus as Christomimetes. |date=January 2003 |url=https://www.academia.edu/39267271 |last1=Roy |first1=Christian }}</ref>

The people in turn were the monarch's ''[[paroikoi]]'' (subjects). He was the sole administrator and lawgiver of the holy ''[[Basileus|Basileia]]'' and ''[[Ecumene|Oikoumene]]'' (commonwealth), with sole power over the state, the land, and his subjects, which he had achieved through God's appointment of him as king. This opened a new stage of reverence in which Hellenistic and Eastern [[Royal court|court]] ceremonies such as [[proskynesis]] highlighted the divinity of the ruler and became standardized and very often mandatory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alexander |first=Suzanne Spain |date=April 1977 |title=Heraclius, Byzantine Imperial Ideology, and the David Plates |journal=Speculum |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=217–237 |doi=10.2307/2850511 |jstor=2850511 |s2cid=161886591 |issn=0038-7134}}</ref> In practice, imperial power was exercised as administration{{emdash}}simplified and centralized through [[viceroy]]s such as the ''[[Exarch]]os'', ''Douk'', ''[[Katepano|Katepánō]]'', ''[[Kephale (Byzantine Empire)|Kephalai]]'' and the ''[[Strategos|Strategoi]]'' who enjoyed the same omnipotence and the emperor's God given divinity in their respective [[Theme (Byzantine district)|governorships]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Charanis |first= Peter |date=July 1969 |title=Early Christian and Byzantine Political Philosophy: Origins and Background. Francis Dvornik |journal=Speculum |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=459–460 |doi=10.2307/2855514 |jstor=2855514 |issn=0038-7134}}</ref>

Such concentrations of power proved to be both a great internal weakness and the cause of various [[Coup d'état|coups]] and rebellions in which viceroys with provincial armies and, sometimes, entire [[Theme (Byzantine district)|themes]], would often challenge imperial power with claims of their own. In this way emperors such as [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] ({{reign|963|969}}) and [[Heraclius]] ({{reign|610|641}}) achieved royal power for themselves.

There were no codified laws on the imperial succession, and the [[Roman Republic]] was never formally abolished. Theoretically, each [[List of Byzantine emperors|emperor]] was formally elected, by both the [[Byzantine senate|senate]] (Synkletos) and the [[Byzantine army|army]]. In practice, however, the Senate had lost all of its former powers and was mostly reduced to a ceremonial role, filled with relatives or close aristocrats to the Emperor; while the Army practically had a monopoly regarding elections. Emperors usually managed to secure succession for their children through indirect means, such as appointing them as co-emperors, and thus introduced various [[List of Roman dynasties|dynasties]]. The absence of codified succession laws and procedures, as well as the militarized state of the Empire, led to numerous coups and revolts, leading to several disastrous results, such as the 1071 defeat at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]].

Applying Orthodox-Hellenistic political schemes, the monarch's household was the sacred kingdom ''[[Oikonomia]]'', and he was its Christ-loving owner and manager ''[[Oikonomos]]'', which meant that no individual or institution through the history of the empire truly owned any land in the face of state supreme ownership.<ref name=Heather-Moncur-2001>{{Cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter |last2=Moncur |first2=David |date=2001 |url=https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/books/isbn/9781789628531 |title=Politics, Philosophy, and Empire in the Fourth Century |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-0-85323-106-6 |location=Liverpool |access-date= 2022-04-25 |archive-date=2022-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831173932/https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/books/isbn/9781789628531}}</ref> Beneath the emperor, a multitude of officials and court functionaries{{emdash}}all directly chosen by the emperor or by one of his representatives{{emdash}}operated the empire's administrative bureaucracy. State officials acted not as magistrates or elected public [[Legatus|legates]], but as representatives, deputies, and viceroys of the monarch in his different domains throughout the empire. In addition to those officials, a large number of honorific titles existed, which the emperor awarded to prominent subjects or to friendly foreign rulers.

Over the more than a thousand years of the empire's existence, the Imperial administrative system evolved in its adoption of historic titles. At first, the various titles of the empire were the same as those of the [[Late antiquity|late]] [[Roman Empire]]. However, by the era of [[Heraclius]] ({{reign|610|641}}), many of the titles had become obsolete. By the time of [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]] ({{reign|1082|1118}}), many of the positions were either new or drastically changed. However, from that time on, they remained essentially the same until the [[Fall of Constantinople|fall of the Byzantine Empire]] in 1453.

==Background history==
In the early Byzantine period (4th to late 6th century), the administrative structure of the empire was a conglomeration of the late Roman Empire's [[Roman diocese|diocese system]], set up by [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]], and of [[Justinian I|Justinian's]] innovations; in the years 535 and 536 Justinian's administrative reforms were formalized. This eliminated the administrative diocese system hierarchy established in previous centuries and with it the strict military and civic divisions within the empire, replacing it with various provincial circumscriptions directly governed by deputies of the emperor, variously called ''[[Stratelates|Stratalates]]'', ''[[Strategos|Strategoi]]'' and ''[[Harmost]]''.{{sfnp|Bury|2018|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}} These deputies held extraordinary military and administrative powers accompanied by prestigious new titleholders in an attempt to lessen corruption and simplify the emperor's direct handling over its domains, foreshadowing similar future administrative reforms initiated and endorsed by contemporary divine Orthodox monarchical philosophy in the Greek-speaking eastern Mediterranean.<ref name=Heather-Moncur-2001/>

Following the transformation of the Byzantine state during the 7th century due to massive territorial loss to the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]], this early structuring came to be replaced by the [[Theme (Byzantine district)|thematic]] military system whose functions had been simplified and specialized in the rapid creation of provincial armies. Influenced by Orthodox kingship and Hellenistic theocratic [[Christianity and Ancient Greek philosophy|philosophies]], power was relegated to military leaders, with the various [[Strategos|Strategoi]], [[Katepano|Katepan]], Douk, [[Kephale (Byzantine Empire)|Kephalai]] or [[Exarch]] each acting as [[viceroy]]s in their respective ''"[[Theme (Byzantine district)|thémata]]"'' or governorships, all being appointed by the sovereign directly.<ref>{{Citation |last=Barnes |first=T. D. |title=Panegyric, history and hagiography in Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' |date=1989-11-24 |work=The Making of Orthodoxy |pages=94–123 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/cbo9780511555350.007 |isbn=9780521351881}}</ref> These governors, being the direct representatives of the monarch himself all through the provinces, enjoyed an omnipotence of their own, accompanied by the divine attributes for being deputies of the emperor himself in their respective districts. Their primary tasks were jointly working with the various provincial subordinates of the capital bureaus for the effective collection of taxes from the different communities ''("Chora", "Komai"),'' from the different land owners estates ''("proasteion"),'' and from monasteries ''("[[episkepsis]]")''. Additionally, and more commonly, as the right hand of the emperor in the management of internal and external affairs, they had to provide an efficient management of fast and flexible provincial armies, dispatching them to appease different threats within the borders, or for the management of new successful territorial acquisitions after long-term campaigns, thereby taking key roles as protagonists of any armed offensive headed by the emperor.{{sfnp|Bury|2016|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}

A [[Strategos]], or any military governor, was assisted by several deputies, chief among them the ''[[Tourmarches|tourmarchēs]]'' or ''[[Merarches|merarchēs]]'' (to a lesser degree also referred as ''[[Topoteretes|topotērētēs]]''). The main provincial governors and their deputies held equal military and administrative duties within the main [[Subdivisions of the Byzantine Empire|sub-division]] inside a thema, a ''[[tourma]]''. These deputies, or any deputy or representative of the Strategos, or of any other military governor, were generally called ''[[Ek prosopou]]'', second to them the ''Krites'' or ''[[Praetor|Praitor]]'' were responsible for the judicial matters inside a Theme. Although the range of tasks of the ''Krites'' or ''Praitor'' were neither fixed nor dogmatic, as they are shown assisting in various military campaigns or, on occasions, replacing the Strategos in his military duties.{{sfnp|Haldon|2004|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}

Due to the lack of action or large-scale battles in the thematas of [[Hellas (theme)|mainland Greece]], by the 12th century most of these came to be governed directly by the [[Megas doux]], under him the ''Krites'' or ''Archons'' of the various coastal cities. The ''themes'', now made up of several ''[[Archon]]tates,'' was accommodated and repurposed solely for the income and maintenance of the Byzantine navy, fulfilling a tax supporting role largely in contrast from the more active and military themas of ''Strategos'' and ''Katepanos'' focussed in Asia Minor. The duties of said governors were largely limited to the collection of the various maritime taxes of their governorships; the management of the various large urban centers such as Athens, Corinth or Thebes; and a basic level of protection for its provinces against pirates and any other parties.{{sfnp|Haldon|2004|p={{pn|date=June 2024}}}}

During the "classic" or middle period of the Byzantine state (8th-late 11th centuries), a new, court-centered system emerged. In this, dignities of a certain level were awarded with new titles derived from older, now obsolete, public offices. A senatorial class remained in place, which incorporated a large part of the upper officialdom; every official from the rank of ''[[protospatharios]]'' (literally "first sword-bearer"; originally the head of the Emperor's bodyguards) was considered a member of it.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=623}} During this period, many families remained important for several centuries, and several Emperors rose from the aristocracy. Two groups can be distinguished: a [[metropolis|metropolitan]] civil nobility and a provincial military one, the latter remaining regionally based and having large land-holdings, but apparently no military forces of their own, in contrast to [[Medieval Europe|contemporary Western Europe]].

The backbone of Byzantine administration and economy (until the [[fall of Constantinople]]) was the joint tax liability system of the different communities inside a ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|théma]],'' duties which were carried out by provincial officials such as the ''epoptes'', ''[[exisotes]],'' and ''praktores'' of the different bureaus. A [[Theme (Byzantine district)|Theme]] was made up of several individuals and institutions, such as the various lands that the many monasteries owned ''(episkepsis)'', the soldiers' farming lands ''(stratiotai),'' the estates ''(proasteion)'' of the land owners ''([[dynatoi]])'' and the peasants ''(geōrgikē)'', with most of a village or town ''(chora or komai)'' being made up of the later. These were the main source of a constant and rapid revenue that ultimately derived from the earlier Hellenistic fiscal and administrative principle of ''"epibole".''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=Alan |title=The land and taxation in the reign of Alexios I Komnenos: the evidence of Theophylakt of Ochrid |date=1993 |publisher=PERSEE |oclc=754219713}}</ref> ''Epibole'' had served as an accessible tool for the [[Diadochi|Hellenistic kingdoms]] for the simple income and rapid collection of taxes by deputies towards various rural communities in the war-time [[Hellenistic period]], after having been adopted and adapted from the late Roman and early Byzantine [[Roman Egypt|province of Egypt]], which had kept its own former fixed fiscal system, proving this measure to be an indirect consequence of the multiple wars and invasions that Byzantium had to deal throughout its history.<ref>{{Citation |title=Historians and the Economy: Zosimos and Prokopios on Fifth- and Sixth- Century Economie Development |date=2017-01-01 |work=Byzantine Narrative |pages=462–474 |publisher=BRILL |doi=10.1163/9789004344877_036 |isbn=9789004344877 |last1=Ziche |first1=Hartmut }}</ref>

After the reforms of [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]], the system underwent various changes in which, due to the desperate state of the empire and the urgent need for income to finance its military campaigns and strengthen its borders, several simplifications and concessions were made. The theme system established under the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenoi]] would remain the administrative basis of the Byzantine state until its final [[Fall of Constantinople|fall in 1453]], differing in few key aspects from its administrative predecessors; it highlighted a greater centralization of power. The various Themes had been divided into smaller districts called [[Katepanikion|''"Katepanakia"'']] which in turn were made up of the various towns and villages ''(chora)'', the monastic estates ''(episkpesis)'', the estates of the dynatoi ''(proasteion)'', and the various ''[[pronoia]]'' grants. The Themes were ruled by a ''"Doux"'', who was positioned by the emperor directly, commonly a relative of his or a close aristocrat to the [[Basileus]]. The [[Katepanikion|Katepanakia]] inside the Theme were ruled by a deputy of the Doux called a ''"Praktor"'' or ''"Energon",'' they were appointed either by the monarch or the Doux himself, with the primary task of the collection of taxes and a second role in the maintenance of basic order, administration and justice in his district.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frankopan |first=P. |date=2007-02-01 |title=Kinship and the Distribution of Power in Komnenian Byzantium |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=CXXII |issue=495 |pages=1–34 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cel378 |issn=0013-8266}}</ref>

[[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios]] fiscal reforms allowed an institution or individual to catalog and group their land domains and, through it, their fiscal obligations, in a document referred as ''praktikon''. The new reform essentially broke from the integrity of the ''"chora"'' or village tax, as its new purpose was the collection of the various taxes regardless of whether collection was by an institution, individual or the village itself, essentially offering it to the highest bidder. Although a simplification, it was not an improvement, as it pushed a great variety of villages and towns to eventually be added to the different ''episkpesis'' of either the adjoining monasteries or of the various well-resourced ''[[dynatoi]]'' landowners, who would become responsible for both their fiscal obligations as monastic institutions, or as individuals, and for the fiscal obligations of the various towns and villages in their domain. This trend culminated in the eventual disappearance of the fiscal individuality that each commune or town had enjoyed, something which emperors like [[Basil II]] had fought and delayed with special taxes such as the [[allelengyon]]. Becoming one of several towns within the estates of the different institutions and individuals of the time was an unbearable phenomenon for many communes due to the various fiscal tolerances that the ''[[basileus]]'' offered the different monastic institutions and their estates, further accelerating the disappearance of the fiscal individuality of the villages and towns.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kazhdan |first=Alexander |date=1993 |title=State, Feudal, and Private Economy in Byzantium |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |volume=47 |pages=83–100 |doi=10.2307/1291672 |jstor=1291672 |issn=0070-7546}}</ref>

The 10th and 11th centuries saw a rise in importance of the aristocracy, and an increased number of new families entering it. The catastrophic losses in the latter 11th century again prompted a reorganization of the imperial administrative system, at the hands of the new [[Komnenos dynasty]]: the older offices and titles fell gradually into disuse, while an array of new honorifics emerged, which signified primarily the closeness of their recipient's familial relationship to the Emperor.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=623}} The Komnenian-led Empire, and later their [[Palaiologos|Palaiologan]] successors, were based primarily on the [[landed nobility|landed aristocracy]], keeping the governance of the state tightly controlled by a limited number of intermarrying aristocratic families; for instance in the 11th and 12th century, only 80 civil and 64 military noble families have been identified, a very small number for so large a state.<ref>Robin Cormack, "Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons", 1985, George Philip, London, p180, using Kazhdan A.P. , 1974 (in Russian)  {{ISBN|0-540-01085-5}}</ref> Finally, in the Palaiologan system as reported by [[George Codinus|pseudo-Kodinos]], one can discern the accumulated nomenclature of centuries, with formerly high ranks having been devalued and others taking their place, and the old distinction between office and dignity having vanished.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=623}}

==Imperial titles==
{{See also|Byzantine emperors}}
These were the highest titles, usually limited to members of the imperial family or to a few very select foreign rulers whose friendship the Emperor desired.

=== Titles used by the emperors ===
[[File:Hyperpyron-Manuel I-sb1965.jpg|thumb|The back of this coin by [[Manuel I Comnenus]] bears his title, ''porphyrogennetos''.]]
* '''''[[Basileus]]''''' (βασιλεύς), the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "[[Monarch|sovereign]]" — Originally referred to any king in the Hellenistic period or in any Greek-speaking area of the Roman Empire. It also referred to the Shahs of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. Heraclius adopted it in 629, and it became the Greek word for "emperor." Heraclius also used the titles ''autokrator'' (αὐτοκράτωρ – "autocrat," "self-ruler") and ''[[kyrios]]'' (κύριος – "Lord"). The Byzantines reserved the term "''basileus''" among Christian rulers exclusively for the emperor in Constantinople, and referred to Western European kings as ''rēgas'', a Hellenized form of the Latin word ''[[Rex (title)|rex]]'' ("king"). The feminine form ''basilissa'' referred to an [[empress]]. Empresses were addressed as ''eusebestatē avgousta'' ("Most Pious [[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]"), and were also called ''kyria'' ("Lady") or ''despoina'' (the female form of "despotes", see below). [[Primogeniture]], or even heredity, were not legally established in Byzantine imperial succession, because in principle the Roman Emperor was selected by common acclamation of the Senate, the People and the Army. This was rooted firmly in the Roman "republican" tradition, whereby hereditary kingship was rejected and the Emperor was nominally the convergence of several offices of the Republic onto one person.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Many emperors, anxious to safeguard their firstborn son's right to the throne, had them crowned as co-emperors when they were still children, thus assuring that upon their own death the throne would not be even momentarily vacant. In such a case the need for an imperial selection never arose. In several cases, the new Emperor ascended the throne after marrying the previous Emperor's [[widow]], or indeed after forcing the previous Emperor to abdicate and become a [[monk]]. Several emperors were also deposed because of perceived inadequacy, for example after a military defeat, and some were murdered.
* '''''[[Porphyrogennetos|Porphyrogennētos]]''''' (πορφυρογέννητος), "[[born in the purple]]" — Derived from Hellenistic bureaucracy, emperors wanting to emphasize the legitimacy of their ascent to the throne appended this title to their names, meaning they were born to a reigning emperor in the delivery room of the imperial palace (called the ''Porphyra'' because it was paneled with slabs of the reddish-purple stone [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]]), and were therefore legitimate beyond any claim to the contrary.
* '''''[[Autokrator|Autokratōr]]''''' (αὐτοκράτωρ), "self-ruler" — Originally equivalent to ''[[imperator]]'', and was used by the emperors.
* '''''Basileus Autokratōr''''' ({{lang|grc|βασιλεύς αὐτοκράτωρ}}) – A combination of titles reserved for the senior of several ruling co-emperors (συμβασιλεῖς, ''symbasileis''), and denoted the person who held substantive political power.

===Titles used by the imperial family===
[[File:Manuel II Helena sons.JPG|thumb|right|Emperor [[Manuel II Palaiologos]] with his family: empress [[Helena Dragaš]] (right), and three of their sons, [[John VIII Palaiologos|John]], [[Andronikos Palaiologos, Lord of Thessalonike|Andronikos]] and [[Theodore II Palaiologos, Lord of Morea|Theodore]]. John, as his father's heir and co-emperor, wears an exact replica of his imperial costume.]]

* '''''[[Despotes|Despotēs]]''''' (δεσπότης), "Lord" — Used by the emperors themselves since the time of [[Justinian I]], and was an honorific address for the sons of reigning emperors. Hellenistic rulers had used it extensively, and during Byzantine times often featured in coins, in lieu of ''Basileus''. In the 12th century, [[Manuel I Komnenos]] made it a separate title, the highest "awarded" title after the emperor. The first such ''despotēs'' was actually a foreigner, [[Bela III of Hungary]], signifying that Hungary was considered a Byzantine tributary state. In later times, a despot could be the holder of a despotate; for example, the [[Despotate of Morea]], centred at [[Mistra]], was held by the heir to the Byzantine throne after 1261. The feminine form, ''despoina'', referred to a female despot or the wife of a despot, but it was also used to address the Empress.
* '''''[[Sebastokrator|Sebastokratōr]]''''' (σεβαστοκράτωρ), "Venerable Ruler" — Created by [[Alexios I Komnenos]] as a combination of ''autokratōr'' and ''sebastos'' (see below). The first ''sebastokratōr'' was Alexios' brother Isaakios. It was essentially a meaningless title, which signified only a close relationship with the Emperor, but ranked immediately after the ''despotēs''. The feminine form was ''sebastokratorissa''. The first foreigner to be called ''sebastokratōr'' was [[Stefan Nemanjić]] of [[Serbia]], who was given the title in 1191. A Bulgarian aristocrat by the name [[Kaloyan (sebastocrator)|Kaloyan]] also used the title.
* '''''[[Caesar (Byzantine title)|Kaisar]]''''' ({{lang|grc|καῖσαρ}}), "Caesar" — Originally, as in the late Roman Empire, it was used for a subordinate co-emperor or the heir apparent, and was first among the "awarded" dignities. The office enjoyed extensive privileges, great prestige and power. When Alexios I created ''sebastokratōr'', ''kaisar'' became third in importance, and fourth after Manuel I created ''despotēs''. The feminine form was ''kaisarissa''. However, it remained an office of great importance, and was awarded to a few high-ranking and distinguished officials, and was only rarely awarded to foreigners. [[Justinian II]] named [[Tervel]], khan of the [[Bulgars]], ''kaisar'' in 705; the title then developed into the [[Slavic language|Slavic]] term [[tsar]] or czar (from [[Latin]] through [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and then into Russian, Serbian etc.). Title was also awarded to [[George II of Georgia]]. [[Andronikos II Palaiologos]] also named [[Roger de Flor]], leader of the [[Catalan Grand Company]], ''kaisar'' in 1304.
* '''''[[Nobelissimos]]''''' (νωβελίσσιμος), from the Latin ''Nobilissimus'' ("most noble") — Originally a title given to close relatives of the Emperor, subordinate only to the ''kaisar''. During the [[Komnenian period]], the title was awarded to officials and foreign dignitaries, diluting its status. The title ''Prōtonobelissimos'' was created in its stead, until it too started to decline, only to be replaced by a further augmented form: ''Prōtonobelissimohypertatos''. By the late Palaiologan era, the former had vanished, while the latter was a provincial official.
* '''''[[Curopalates|Kouropalatēs]]''''' (κουροπαλάτης), from the Latin ''cura palatii'', "charge of the palace" — First attested in the time of [[Justinian I]], it was the official in charge of running the imperial palace. However, the great authority and wealth deriving from this position, as well as the close proximity to the Emperor, meant that it accumulated great prestige. It was awarded to important members of the imperial family, but from the 11th century onwards, it declined, and was usually awarded to the vassal rulers of [[Armenia]] and [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgia]].
* '''''[[Sebastos]]''''' (σεβαστός), "August One" — This title is the literal Greek translation of the Latin term ''Augustus'' or ''Augoustos'', which was sometimes used by the emperors. As a separate title, it appeared in the latter half of the 11th century, and was extensively awarded by [[Alexios I Komnenos]] to his brothers and relations. The female version of the title was ''sebastē''. The special title [[Protosebastos]] ("First Venerable One") was created for Hadrianos, Alexios' second brother, and awarded also to the [[Doge of Venice]] and the [[Sultan of Iconium]]. During the 12th century, it remained in use for the Emperor's and the ''sebastokratōr'''s children, and senior foreign dignitaries. However, the parallel processes of proliferation and devaluation of titles during the 12th century resulted in the creation of a bewildering array of often ridiculously large variations, by using the prefixes ''pan'' ("all"), ''hyper'' ("above"), ''prōto'' ("first"): examples include [[Pansebastos]] and [[Panhypersebastos]]. Few of them actually survived past the 12th century, and all of them rapidly declined in importance.

==Court titles from the 8th to 11th centuries==
[[File:Jean Chrysostome Homélies btv1b8470047d.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Nikephoros III]] with an aura flanked by personifications of Truth and Justice, and by his senior court dignitaries, from an illuminated manuscript dating to the 1070s. From left: the ''[[proedros]]'' and ''[[epi tou kanikleiou]]'', the ''[[protoproedros|prōtoproedros]]'' and ''[[protovestiarios|prōtovestiarios]]'' (a eunuch, since he is beardless), the emperor, the ''proedros'' and ''[[dekanos]]'', and the ''proedros'' and ''[[megas primikerios|megas primikērios]]''.<ref>{{cite book| title=The portrait in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts |first=Iohannis |last=Spatharakis | publisher=Brill Archive | year=1976 | isbn=978-90-04-04783-9 | page=110}}</ref>]]
In the 8th–11th centuries, according to information provided by the ''[[Taktikon Uspensky]]'', the ''[[Kletorologion|Klētorologion]]'' of Philotheos (899) and the writings of [[Constantine Porphyrogennetos]], below the imperial titles, the Byzantines distinguished two distinct categories of dignities ({{lang|grc|ἀξίαι}}): the "dignities by award" ({{lang|grc|διὰ βραβείων ἀξίαι}}), which were purely honorific court titles and were conferred by the award of a symbol of rank, and the "dignities by proclamation" ({{lang|grc|διὰ λόγου ἀξίαι}}), which were offices of the state and were conferred by imperial pronouncement. The former were further divided into three subcategories, depending on who was eligible for them: different sets of titles existed for the "Bearded Ones" (''βαρβάτοι'' from Latin ''barbati'', i.e. not eunuchs), the eunuchs ({{lang|grc|ἐκτομίαι}}) and women. State officials usually combined titles from both main categories, so that a high official would be both ''magistros'' (an "awarded" title) and ''logothetēs tou dromou'' (a "proclaimed" office).

=== Titles for the "bearded ones" ===
The "by award" titles for the "Bearded Ones" (non-eunuchs<ref>The Eunuch in Byzantine History and Society; Shaun Tougher; page 22</ref>) were, in descending order of precedence:
* '''''[[Proedros]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πρόεδρος}}), "president" — Originally reserved for eunuchs (see below), it was opened up in the mid-11th century to "Bearded Ones" as well, especially military officials.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=1727}}
* '''''[[Magistros]]''''' ({{lang|grc|μάγιστρος}}) – In the early Byzantine state, the ''[[magister officiorum]]'' was one of the most senior officials, but as his duties were gradually relegated to other officials, by the 8th century, only the title was left. It remained a high honour, and only rarely awarded until the 10th century.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=21}} By the early 10th century, there were 12, the first in precedence among them bearing the title of ''prōtomagistros''. Thereafter the number of its holders was inflated, and the office vanished sometime in the 12th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=1267}}
* '''''[[Vestarches]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βεστάρχης}}), "head of the vestai" — Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it began being awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople around 1050, before disappearing in the early 12th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=2162}}
* '''''[[Vestes]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βέστης}}) – A senior honorific title, first attested under [[John I Tzimiskes]]. Awarded to both eunuchs and non-eunuchs, it survived until the early 12th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=2162}} The term is etymologically connected to the vestiarion, the imperial wardrobe, but despite earlier attempts to connect the vestai and the related title of vestarchēs, the head of the class of the vestai (see above), with the officials of the vestiarion (see below), no such relation appears to have existed.
* '''''[[Anthypatos]]''''' ({{lang|grc|ἀνθύπατος}}), "[[proconsul]]" — Originally the highest rank for provincial governors, it survived the creation of the [[Theme system]], until, in the 9th century, it too became a purely honorific title. The variant '''''prōtanthypatos''''' was created in the 11th century to counter its decline in importance, but both disappeared by the end of the 12th century.
* '''''[[Patrikios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πατρίκιος}}), "patrician" — Established as the highest title of nobility by [[Constantine the Great]], it remained one of the highest dignities until its disappearance in the [[Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty|Komnenian period]], awarded to high-ranking officials, including eunuchs, and foreign rulers. The spouses of patricians bore the title ''patrikia'' (not to be confused with ''zōstē patrikia'', see below).{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=1600}}
* '''''[[Protospatharios|Prōtospatharios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πρωτοσπαθάριος}}), "first ''spatharios''" — As its name signifies, it originally was the title borne by the leader of the ''spatharioi'' ("swordbearers," the Emperor's bodyguards). For instance, in the 6th century [[Narses]] bore this title.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=27}} It later became one of the most common high court titles, awarded to senior officials such as the ''logothetai'', the commanders of the imperial ''[[Tagma (military)|tagmata]]'', or the ''strategoi'' in charge of a theme. The title of ''prōtospatharios'' also signified admittance to the Senate. The office survived until the [[Palaiologan period]], but had declined to the 35th place of the hierarchy.
* '''''[[Dishypatos]]''''' ({{lang|grc|δισύπατος}}), "twice consul" — A very rare dignity, which originated possibly in the 8th century.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=27}}
* '''''[[Spatharokandidatos]]''''' ({{lang|grc|σπαθαροκανδιδᾶτος}}) – a blend word of the titles spatharios and kandidatos, both of which were types of palace guards in the 4th–6th centuries. The earliest references to the title occur in early 8th century and the title is clearly attested only from the early 9th century on. Its distinctive badge (brabeion) was a golden chain (maniakion) worn around the chest.[1][3] {{Full citation needed|date=July 2023}}
* '''''[[Spatharios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|σπαθάριος}}), "[[spatha]]-bearer" — As their name signifies, the ''spatharioi'' were initially a special corps of imperial guards (a ''spatha'' is a kind of sword). They performed specific duties inside the imperial palace. The title survived until the early 12th century.
* '''''[[Hypatos]]''''' ({{lang|grc|ὕπατος}}), "[[Roman consul|consul]]" or "The supreme one" — As in the Roman Republic and Empire, the title was initially given each year to two distinguished citizens (the "ordinary consuls"), until [[Justinian I]] halted the practice due to the extraordinary expenditure it involved. It too became a purely honorific title. The title continued to be occasionally assumed by emperors on accession until the end of the 7th century. Honorary consuls however continued to be named, as attested by seals bearing the titles ''hypatos'' or ''apo hypatōn'' ("former consul").{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=26}} The title was often conferred to the rulers of south Italian city-states.
* '''''[[Strator|Stratōr]]''''' ({{lang|grc|στράτωρ}}), "[[Groom (horses)]]".
* '''''Kandidatos''''' ({{lang|grc|κανδιδᾶτος}}) – From the Latin ''[[:wikt:candidatus#Latin|candidatus]]'', so named because of their white tunics. They were originally a select group of guards, drawn from the ''[[Scholae Palatinae]]''. The title disappeared in the Komnenian period.
* '''''[[basilikos mandator|Basilikos mandatōr]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βασιλικὸς μανδάτωρ}}), "imperial or royal messenger".
* '''''[[Vestitor|Vestētōr]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βεστήτωρ}}) — Officers of the imperial wardrobe (Latin ''vestiarium'').{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=25}}
* '''''[[Silentiarios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|σιλεντιάριος}}) — Originally a group of courtiers responsible for the maintenance of order (including respectful silence) in the palace.
* '''''[[Stratelates|Stratēlatēs]]''''' ({{lang|grc|στρατηλάτης}}), Greek equivalent of the Latin ''[[magister militum]]'', and '''''apoeparchōn''''' ({{lang|grc|ἀποεπάρχων}} or ''{{lang|grc|ἀπὸ ἐπάρχων}}''), equivalent of the Latin ''ex praefectis'' — These two titles are listed as equal by Philotheos. Both were still high dignities in the 6th century, but were devalued afterward.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|pp=21, 23–24}}

=== Titles for eunuchs ===
By descending order of precedence, the "by award" titles for the eunuchs were:
* '''''[[Proedros]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πρόεδρος}}), "president" — This was an entirely new rank introduced in the 960s by [[Nikephoros II Phokas]] and first awarded to [[Basil Lekapenos]], the eunuch ''parakoimōmenos''. The holder of this dignity was also the president of the Senate, and the term ''proedros'' was often used to denote precedence, e.g. ''proedros'' of the ''notarioi'' for the ''[[protonotarios|prōtonotarios]]''. The title was widely awarded in the 11th century, when it was opened up to non-eunuchs, prompting the creation of the ''prōtoproedros'' to distinguish the most senior amongst its holders. It disappeared in the latter 12th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=1727}}
* '''''[[Vestarches]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βεστάρχης}}) – Adopted in the latter half of the 10th century for high-ranking eunuchs, it was awarded to "bearded" senior military officers and judicial officials of Constantinople from ca. 1050 on. It disappeared in the early 12th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=2162}}
* '''''[[Patrikios]]''''' – Same as for the "Bearded Ones".
* '''''[[Vestes]]''''' ({{lang|grc|βέστης}}) – Same as for the "Bearded Ones".{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=2162}}
* '''''[[Praipositos]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πραιπόσιτος}}) – From the Latin ''praepositus'', "placed before".
* '''''[[Protospatharios|Prōtospatharios]]''''' – Same as for the "Bearded Ones".
* '''''[[Primikerios|Primikērios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|πριμικήριος}}) – From the Latin ''[[primicerius]]'', "first in the list".
* '''''[[Ostiarios]]''''' (''ὀστιάριος'') – From the Latin ''ostiarius'', "doorkeeper, usher".
* '''''[[Spatharokoubikoularios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|σπαθαροκουβικουλάριος}}), "sword-chamberlain" — A ceremonial sword-carrier assigned to the personal guard of the emperor.{{sfnp|Ringrose|2003|p=234 (Note #86)}} It later became a simple court rank.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=121}}
* '''''[[Koubikoularios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|κουβικουλάριος}}) – From the Latin ''cubicularius'', "chamberlain".
* '''''[[Nipsistiarios]]''''' ({{lang|grc|νιψιστιάριος}}), from Greek νίπτειν, "to wash hands") — The ''nipsistiarios'' was tasked with holding a gold, gem-encrusted water basin and assisting the emperor in performing the ritual [[Ritual purification|ablutions]] before he exited the imperial palace or performed ceremonies.

=== Titles for women ===
*'''''[[zoste patrikia|Zōstē patrikia]]''''' ({{lang|grc|ζωστὴ πατρικία}}), "Girded ''patrikia''" — This title, reserved for women, was given to the empress' ladies of honour, and, according to Philotheos, ranked very high in hierarchy, above even the ''magistros'' and ''proedros'' and just below the ''kouropalates''. The title is known from the early 9th century, and disappeared in the 11th century.{{sfnp|Kazhdan|1991|p=2231}} Otherwise women bore the female forms of their husbands' titles.

=== Titles for foreigners ===
* '''''[[Exousiastes]]''''' ({{lang|grc|εξουσιαστής}}), "one who executes authority" — It was a style applied in the empire to some sovereign foreign rulers.

== 14th–15th century ==
''Book of Offices'' ranks the order of command below the emperor:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Heath |first1=Ian |title=Byzantine Armies, 1118–1461 |date=13 November 1995 |publisher=Osprey |isbn=978-1-85532-347-6 |pages=18–9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEwhvgAACAAJ}}</ref>
# [[Despot (title)|Despot]]
# [[Sebastokrator]]
# [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]
# [[Megas domestikos]]
# [[Megas doux]]
# [[Protostrator]], deputy of ''megas domestikos''
# {{lang|el-Latn|[[Megas stratopedarches]]}}
# [[Megas primmikerios]]
# [[Konostaulos|Megas konostablos]]
# [[Megas droungarios]]
# [[Hetaireia|Megas hetairearches]]
# [[Epi tou stratou]]
# Domestic of the [[Scholae]]
# [[Megas droungarios]], deputy of ''megas doux''
# [[Protospatharios]]
# [[Megas archon|Megas arkhon]], deputy of ''megas primmikerios''
# [[Megas tzaousios]]
# [[Skouterios]]
# [[Admiral|Amyriales]], deputy of ''megas droungarios''
# [[Akolouthos|Megas akolouthos]]
# [[Allagion|Arkhon tou Allagion]], deputy of ''megas arkhon''
# [[Protallagator]]
# Domestic of [[Walls of Constantinople|the Walls]]
# [[Vestararius|Vestiarios]], deputy of ''amyriales''
# [[Hetaireiarches]], deputy of ''megas hetairearches''
# Stratopedarches of the Mourtatoi
# Stratopedarches of the [[Tsakonia|Tzakones]]
# Stratopedarches of ''one-horse cavalry men''
# Stratopedarches of the crossbowmen
# Protokomes

== Palace offices ==

* '''''[[Parakoimomenos]]''''' (literally, "one who sleeps nearby") — The High [[Chamberlain (office)|Chamberlain]] who slept in the Emperor's bedchamber. Usually a eunuch, during the 9th–10th centuries the holders of this office often functioned as ''de facto'' chief ministers of the Empire.
* '''''[[Protovestiarios]]''''' – Usually a minor relative of the emperor who took care of the emperor's personal wardrobe, especially on military campaigns. He was also sometimes responsible for other members of the imperial household, and the emperor's personal finances. The older term, from before the time of [[Justinian I]], was ''[[Curopalates|curopalata]]'' (or ''kouropalates'' in Greek). This was derived from ''kourator'' (curator), an earlier official responsible for financial matters. The ''vestiarios'' was a subordinate official. The ''protovestiaria'' and ''vestiaria'' performed the same functions for the empress.
* '''''[[Papias (Byzantine office)|Papias]]''''' – Concierge of the imperial palaces, responsible for opening and closing the palace gates each day.
* '''''[[Pinkernes]]''''' – Originally the emperor's cupbearer, later a senior honorific title.
* '''''[[Kanikleios]]''''' – The keeper of the imperial inkstand, one of the senior officials of the imperial chancery. In the Komnenian and Palaiologan period, some of its holders were ''de facto'' chief ministers of the Empire.
* '''''[[Epi tes trapezes]]''''' (ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς τραπέζης), "the one in charge of the table" — Official responsible for attending to the imperial table during banquets.

==Military offices==
===Army===
* '''''Exarchos''''' – The [[exarch]]s were governors of remote parts of the empire such as Italy or Africa. They enjoyed a greater degree of independence than other provincial governors, combining both civil and military authority, practically acting as [[viceroy]]s.
* '''''[[Domestikos]]''''' – The ''domestikoi'' were originally imperial guards, who later functioned as senior staff officers in the [[Late Roman army]]. In the Byzantine period, they were among the highest military offices, and included:
** '''''[[Megas domestikos]]''''', Grand Domestic – The overall commander of the army.
** '''''[[Domestikos ton scholon|Domestikos tōn scholōn]]''''', Domestic of the Schools – The commander of the ''[[Scholai]]'', originally a number of guards units, later a [[tagma (military)|Tagma]]. This was a very prestigious title, and by the late 9th century, its holder functioned as commander in chief of the army. In ca. 959, the post was divided, with one domestic for the East and one for the West.
** '''''Domestikos tōn thematōn''''', Domestic of the Themes – The commander and organizer of the military themes; there was one for the European themes and one for Asian themes.
* '''''[[Katepano|Katepanō]]''''' – The governor of a greater area combining two or more themes, such as the [[Catepanate of Italy|Catepan of Italy]], a title developed in the 9th century.
* '''''[[Monostrategos|Stratēgos]]''''' – A military and later also civil commander of a theme, who often also had the title of ''[[Dux|doux]]''. The term is basically equivalent to "general" or "admiral", as it was used in both branches of service.
* '''''[[Tourmarches|Tourmarchēs]]''''' – The commander of a ''[[tourma]]'', a military unit of battalion size.
* '''''[[Protostrator|Prōtostratōr]]''''' – Initially the Emperor's [[Stable Master|stable master]], under the Komnenian and Palaiologan emperors the term was used for the second-ranking commander of the army.
* '''''[[Stratopedarches|Stratopedarchēs]]''''', Master of the Camp – In charge of making sure the army was stocked with food and arms.
* '''''Hoplitarchēs''''' or '''''archēgētēs''''' – Commander of all infantry in a large army. The title first appeared in the mid-10th century, when the infantry was reorganized and gained in importance.
* '''''Prōtokentarchos''''' and '''''kentarchos''''' – Commanders of a smaller division of the army in the field. The name was derived from the Latin [[centurion]].
* '''''[[Merarches|Merarchēs]]''''' – Commander of a division ''(meros)'' of the army. Usually, each army was divided into two to three such commands.
* '''''[[Taxiarch]]ēs''''' or '''''[[chiliarch]]ēs''''' – Commander of an infantry regiment (''taxiarchia'' or ''chiliarchia'') in the army.
* '''''Kavallarios''''' – A title borrowed from the Latin ''caballarius'', it originally meant a cavalry soldier. During the [[Palaiologan period]], it became a minor court title.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Mark C. |last=Bartusis |title=The Kavallarioi of Byzantium |journal=Speculum |volume=63 |issue=2 |date=Apr 1988 |pages=343–350}}</ref>

===Navy===
{{further|Byzantine navy#Organization}}
* '''''[[Megas doux]]''''', Megaduke or Grand Duke — The basic equivalent of the modern [[British Admiralty|Lord High Admiral]]. The office was created by [[Alexios I Komnenos]], when he combined the remnants of the imperial and thematic fleets into a single imperial fleet. By the end of the [[Palaiologos]] dynasty the megaduke was head of the government and bureaucracy, not just the navy.
* '''''Amirales''''' — Greek version of "Admiral", introduced via Sicilian practice; an office founded in the late Palaiologan era for Western mercenary leaders and rarely held, the ''amirales'' was the deputy of the ''megas doux''.
* '''''[[Droungarios of the Fleet|Megas droungarios]]''''' — Initially the commander-in-chief of the Byzantine navy; after the creation of the ''megas doux'' his lieutenant, in charge of the naval officers.
* '''''[[Droungarios]]''''' – The title existed both in the army and the navy. In the navy of the 8th–11th centuries, a ''droungarios'' headed a fleet, either the central imperial fleet or one of the thematic fleets; in the army he headed a Droungos, a roughly battalion-sized grouping.
* '''''Komēs''''' or '''''droungarokomēs''''' – The commander of a squadron of [[dromon]]s.
* '''''Kentarchos''''' or '''''[[Navarch|nauarchos]]''''' – The captain of a ship.

===Other military titles===
* '''''[[Ethnarches|Ethnarchēs]]''''' — The ''ethnarch'', commander of foreign troops.
* '''''[[Konostaulos]]''''' — Greek form of Latin [[Comes stabuli]] "count of the stable" and various European feudal titles such as English "constable"; the chief of the [[Franks|Frankish]] [[mercenary|mercenaries]].
* '''''[[Hetaireiarches|Hetaireiarchēs]]''''' — The chief of the [[barbarian]] mercenaries, the ''[[Hetaireia]]'', successor to the ''[[Foederati]]''. Initially subdivided into Greater (''Megalē''), Middle (''Mesē'') and Little (''Mikra'') ''Hetaireia''.
* '''''[[Akolouthos]]''''', "Acolyte" — The chief of the [[Varangian]] Guard from the Komnenian era onwards.
* '''''[[Manglavitai]]''''' — A category of palace guards, armed with sword and cudgel (''manglavion''). Under the command of a ''Prōtomanglavitēs''.
* '''''[[Topoteretes|Topotērētēs]]''''', "place-holder" or "lieutenant" — Found at various levels of the hierarchy, as deputies to commanders of the imperial ''tagmata'', deputy to a ''drungarios''.

==Administrative offices==
[[File:Emperor Theophilos Chronicle of John Skylitzes.jpg|thumb|right|Emperor [[Theophilos (emperor)|Theophilos]] flanked by courtiers. From the [[Skylitzes Chronicle]].]]
Byzantine administrative nature was characterized by its versatility and unfixed duties in constant role change depending on a specific situation. The vast Byzantine bureaucracy had many titles, more varied than aristocratic and military titles. In Constantinople there were normally hundreds, if not thousands, of bureaucrats at any time. Like members of the Church and the military, they wore elaborately differentiated [[Byzantine dress|dress]], often including huge hats. These are some of the more common ones, including non-nobles who also directly served the emperor.

* '''''Praetorian prefect''''' — The [[Praetorian prefect]]ure was set up by [[Augustus]] as the command of the imperial Guard in Rome. It was developed by [[Diocletian]] into a civil office, whereby a handful of Prefects each acted for the Emperor with responsibility for a cluster of dioceses and provinces. Each received regular reports on administration from the provincial governors, had treasuries of his own, and paid and supplied the army with food. He was also a supreme judge of appeal; in cases which were brought before his court from a lower tribunal there was no further appeal to the Emperor. He could issue, on his own authority, praetorian edicts, but they concerned only matters of detail. The office was abolished in the 7th century as part of wide-ranging civil and military reforms, and evolved into that of the ''domestikos''. 
* '''''[[Basileopator|Basileopatōr]]''''' (βασιλεοπάτωρ), "Father of the Emperor" — An exceptional title, granted only twice in Byzantine history. Although a ''basileopatōr'' was not the emperor's actual father, and the title did not necessarily denote any familial relationship at all, both awardees were the father-in-law of the emperor: [[Stylianos Zaoutzes]] under [[Leo VI the Wise]] and [[Romanos I Lekapenos]] briefly as regent for [[Constantine VII]], before he raised himself to co-emperor. It ranked first among the "decreed" offices, and entailed wide-ranging administrative duties.
* '''''[[Protasekretis]]''''', "First Secretary" — an earlier title for the head of the [[wikt:chancery|chancery]], responsible for keeping official government records and head of the class of senior secretaries known as ''[[asekretis]]''. Other subordinates included the ''[[chartoularios]],'' in charge of imperial documents; the ''kastrensios,'' a chamberlain in the palace; the ''mystikos,'' a private secretary; and the ''eidikos,'' a treasury official.
* '''''[[Protonotarios]]''''' — Mainly used during the middle Byzantium (8th to 10th c.), also "First Secretary" but chiefly employed as chief financial and executive officer of either each thema/province, directly under its governor-general, or as imperial secretary in various government ministries in the capital. Charged with the provisioning of the thematic troops ahead of a campaign, the Protonotarios at times resembled a Commissar of the USSR, answering only to the emperor. During the late Byzantine era, the title was only encountered at the Palaiologan court, as the emperor's private secretary. In post-imperial times the title was linked to a higher administrative position with the Orthodox Church authorities.
* '''''[[Chartoularios tou vestiariou]]''''', literally "keeper of documents for the Public Wardrobe" (see [[Vestiarion]]) — Responsible for minting gold and silver coins and equipping the fleet.
* '''''[[Logothete|Logothetēs]]''''', "one who accounts, calculates or ratiocinates" (literally "one who sets the word") — A secretary in the extensive bureaucracy, who did various jobs depending on the exact position. In the middle and late [[Byzantine Empire]], it rose to become a senior [[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|administrative title]], equivalent to a modern [[Minister (government)|minister]] or [[secretary of state]]. Different offices of Logothetes included:
** '''''[[Megas logothetes|Megas logothetēs]]''''', Grand Logothete — the head of the logothetes, personally responsible for the legal system and treasury, somewhat like a [[chancellor]] in western Europe.
** '''''[[Logothetes tou dromou|Logothetēs tou dromou]]''''', Drome Logothete — the head of [[diplomacy]] and the [[mail|postal service]].
** '''''[[Logothetes ton oikeiakon|Logothetēs tōn oikeiakōn]]''''', Logothete of the ''oikeiakoi'' — the exact functions of this office are unclear.
** '''''[[Logothetes tou genikou|Logothetēs tou genikou]]''''', General Logothete — responsible for taxation. Also acted as a secretary in later cases.
** '''''[[Logothetes tou stratiotikou|Logothetēs tou stratiotikou]]''''', Military Logothete — a civilian, in charge of distributing pay to the army.

Logothetes originally had some influence on the emperor, but the posts eventually became honorary. In the later empire the Grand Logothete was replaced by the ''[[mesazon|mesazōn]]'' ("mediator").

Other administrators included:

* '''[[Eparch of Constantinople]]''' — The [[urban prefect]] of Constantinople.
* '''[[Quaestor sacri palatii|Quaestor]]''' — Originally an accountant or auditor, the office eventually became a judicial one for Constantinople.
* '''''Tribounos''''', translation of Latin [[tribune]] — Responsible for maintenance of roads, monuments, and buildings in Constantinople (which were the responsibility of the Aedile, not the Tribunes in earlier Latin speaking times.)
* '''''Magister''''' (''[[magister officiorum]]'', ''[[magister militum]]'', "maistor" in Greek) — An old Roman term, master of offices and master of the army; by the time of [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]], these had become honorary titles and were eventually discarded.{{sfnp|Bury|1911|p=32}}
* '''''[[Sakellarios]]''''', "treasurer; purse-bearer" — Under Heraclius, an honorary supervisor of the other palace administrators, logothetes, etc. Later, the chief financial comptroller of the Empire.
* '''[[Praetor]]''', Latin for "Man who goes before; first man." — One of the oldest of Roman titles, predating the Roman Republic, the title's use morphed considerably through the years. By the time of [[Theodosius I]] (379-395) it meant the leading municipal magistrate (like a modern Mayor) but from late 10th century until 1204, a civil governor of a theme.
* '''''[[Kephale (Byzantine Empire)|Kephale]]''''', "head" — The governor of a small province, usually a town and its surrounding territory, in the [[Palaiologan period]]
* '''''Horeiarios''''' — In charge of distributing food from the state granaries.
* '''''[[Archon]]'''''

The ''protasekretis'', ''logothetes'', prefect, praetor, quaestor, ''magister'', and ''sakellarios'', among others, were members of the [[Byzantine senate|senate]].

===Court life===
At the peaceful height of Middle Byzantium, court life "passed in a sort of ballet",<ref>{{cite book |first=Steven |last=Runciman |title=Byzantine Style and Civilization |place=London |publisher=Penguin |year=1975}}{{pn|date=June 2024}}</ref> with precise ceremonies prescribed for every occasion, to show that "Imperial power could be exercised in harmony and order", and "the Empire could thus reflect the motion of the Universe as it was made by the Creator", according to the Emperor [[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]], who wrote a ''Book of Ceremonies'' describing in enormous detail the annual round of the Court. Special forms of dress for many classes of people on particular occasions are set down; at the name-day dinner for the Emperor or Empress various groups of high officials performed ceremonial "dances", one group wearing "a blue and white garment, with short sleeves, and gold bands, and rings on their ankles. In their hands they hold what are called ''phengia''". The second group do just the same, but wearing "a garment of green and red, split, with gold bands". These colours were the marks of the old chariot-racing factions, the four now merged to just the Blues and the Greens, and incorporated into the official hierarchy. As in the Versailles of [[Louis XIV]], elaborate dress and court ritual probably were at least partly an attempt to smother and distract from political tensions.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

[[Eunuch]]s also participated in court life, typically serving as attendants to noble women or assisting the emperor when he took part in religious ceremonies or removed his crown. Eunuchs in the early Byzantine Empire were usually foreigners, and they were often seen as having a low status. This changed in the 10th century, when the social status of eunuchs increased and members of the educated Byzantine upper class began to become eunuchs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosenwein |first=Barbara |year=2009 |title=A Short History of the Middle Ages |edition=3rd |publisher=University of Toronto Press}}{{pn|date=June 2024}}</ref>

However, even by the time of [[Anna Comnena]], with the Emperor away on military campaigns for much of the time, this way of life had changed considerably, and after the [[Crusade]]r occupation it virtually vanished. A French visitor{{who|date=May 2010}} was shocked to see the Empress going to church far less well attended than the Queen of France would have been.{{citation needed|date=May 2010}} The Imperial family largely abandoned the Great Palace for the relatively compact [[Palace of Blachernae]].{{when|date=July 2023}}{{cn|date=June 2024}}

==See also==
* [[Byzantine Navy]]
* [[Byzantine battle tactics]]
* [[Byzantine army]]
* [[Byzantinism]]
* [[Aristoi]]
* [[Eupatridae]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book | first = Mark C. | last = Bartusis | title = The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society 1204–1453 | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | year = 1997 | isbn = 0-8122-1620-2 }}
* {{Cite book | first = Louis | last = Bréhier | author-link = Louis Bréhier | title = Les institutions de l'empire byzantin | publisher = Albin Michel | year = 2000 | orig-year=1949 | location = Paris | isbn = 978-2-226-04722-9|language=fr}}
* {{The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bury |first=J.B. |date=2016 |title=History of the later Roman Empire: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian |publisher=Dover |isbn=0-486-20398-0 |oclc=59201731}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bury |first=J.B. |date=2018 |title=HISTORY OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE: from the death of Theodosius I to the death of Justinian |publisher=Charles River Editors |isbn=978-1-61430-462-3 |oclc=1193333944}}
* {{cite book | first = Michael | last=Angold | author-link=Michael Angold | title=The Byzantine Aristocracy: IX to XIII Centuries | publisher=BAR International Series |year= 1984 |isbn=0-86054-283-1}}
* {{Recherches sur les institutions byzantines }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Guilland |first=Rodolphe |title=Les Logothètes: Etudes sur l'histoire administrative de l'Empire byzantin |journal=Revue des études byzantines |volume=29 |year=1971 |pages=5–115 |doi=10.3406/rebyz.1971.1441 |language=fr |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rebyz_0766-5598_1971_num_29_1_1441 |access-date=28 May 2011}}
* {{cite book |first = John F. |last = Haldon |title = Byzantium in the Seventh Century: The Transformation of a Culture |year = 1997 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-31917-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pSHmT1G_5T0C}}
* {{Warfare, State and Society in the Byzantine World, 565–1204}}
* {{Cite book |last=Haldon |first=John F. |title=Warfare, state, and society in the Byzantine world, 565-1204 |date=2004 |publisher=Routledge |oclc=1039560193}}
* {{Cite book | first = Anthony | last = Kaldellis | title = The Byzantine Republic: People and Power in New Rome | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2015 | isbn = 9780674365407 }}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium}}
* {{Cite book | title=Ruling the later Roman Empire | first=Christopher |last=Kelly | publisher=Harvard University Press | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-674-01564-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhXx67fX7hoC }}
* {{Cite book|last=Krsmanović|first=Bojana|title=The Byzantine Province in Change: On the Threshold Between the 10th and the 11th Century |year=2008|location=Belgrade|publisher=Institute for Byzantine Studies|isbn=9789603710608 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kjsjAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mango |first=Cyril A. |publisher=Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece |date=2007 |location=Athens |language=el |translator-last=Dimitris Tsoungarakis |script-title=el:Η Αυτοκρατορία της Νέας Ρώμης |trans-title=Byzantium: The Empire of the New Rome |author-link=Cyril Mango}}
* {{cite book | first=Nicolas | last=Oikonomides | author-link=Nikolaos Oikonomides | title=Les listes de préséance byzantines des IXe et Xe siècles | publisher=Éditions [[Centre national de la recherche scientifique|CNRS]] | location=Paris | year= 1972|language=fr}}
* {{cite journal | first=Nicolas | last=Oikonomides | author-link=Nikolaos Oikonomides | title=La chancellerie impériale de Byzance du 13e au 15e siècle | journal = Revue des études byzantines | volume = 43 | year = 1985 | pages = 167–195 | doi = 10.3406/rebyz.1985.2171 | url = http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rebyz_0766-5598_1985_num_43_1_2171 | access-date = 28 May 2011|language=fr}}
* {{cite book |last=Ringrose |first=Kathryn M. |title=The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium |year=2003 |location=Chicago |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-72015-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tlvMHa6qKloC}}
* {{A History of the Byzantine State and Society}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150415213924/http://blog.pbw.cch.kcl.ac.uk/reference/glossary/ Glossary] of Byzantium-related technical terms including official titles; ''Prosopography of the Byzantine World'' Project, [[King's College London]]

{{Byzantine offices after pseudo-Kodinos}}
{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=collapsed}}
{{List of titles and honours of the Countries Crown}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Byzantine Bureaucracy}}
[[Category:Government of the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine titles and offices]]
[[Category:Bureaucratic organization]]