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Cape sparrow

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Cape Sparrow
Males (above) and female (below) in Sossusvlei, Namibia
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Aves
Order:
Passeriformes
Family:
Passeridae
Genus:
Passer
Species:
P. melanurus
Binomial name
Passer melanurus

The Cape Sparrow or Mossie (Passer melanurus) is a species of passerine bird in the sparrow family. Brightly coloured and distinctive, it is coloured grey, brown, and chestnut, with some black and white markings on the male. It is found in southern Africa, where it inhabits savanna, cultivated areas, and towns.

Description

The Cape Sparrow is brightly coloured and distinctive, a medium-sized sparrow at 14–16 cm (5½–6¼ in).[2] The breeding male has a mostly black head, broken by a broad white on each side band curling from behind the eye to the throat. On the throat a narrow black band connects the black bib of the breast to black of the head.[3] Underparts are greyish, darker on the flanks. back of the male's neck is dark grey, and its back and shoulders are bright chestnut. The male has a white and a black wing bar below its shoulders, and flight feathers and tail streaked grey and black.[2] The female is plumaged like the male, but is duller and has a grey head with a different pattern from the male. The juvenile is like the female, but young males show black on the head from an early age.[2][4]

The Cape Sparrow's vocalisations are chirps similar to those of the House Sparrow, but much more musical and mellow.[2][5] The basic call is used in flight and while perching socially and transcribed as chissip, chirrup, chreep, or chirrichup.[5] A call used by the male to advertise nest ownership is transcribed as tweeng or twileeng. Distinctive and loud, this call sometimes becomes a jerky and repetitive song, transcibed as chip cheerup, chip cheerup.[5][6]

Taxonomy

The Cape Sparrow was first described by Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller in 1776.[2] It is a member of the genus Passer. Within this genus its relations have generally been regarded as obscure.[7] Mitochondrial DNA studies, however, have strongly suggested that the Cape Sparrow is the earliest offshoot, or the most basal member of this genus.[8][9]

The Cape Sparrow's specific epithet comes from the Greek μέλας (melas, "black") and ουρά (oura, "tail"),[10] while the name of the genus Passer comes from a Latin word for small birds.[11]

The Cape Sparrow has three subspecies. The nominate subspecies Passer melanurus melanurus is found in eastern South Africa, east to the west of Free State, and the subspecies vicinus, which is sometimes merged with melanurus, east from Free State to the Eastern Cape and Lesotho. The subspecies damarensis ranges from the extreme southern coastal areas of Angola into Namibia, Botswana and the extreme west of Zimbabwe, as well as northern South Africa.[6]

Distribution and habitat

Females at a waterhole in Namibia

The Cape Sparrow inhabits southern Africa from Angola south to South Africa and east to Lesotho.[1] Its original habitats were the semi-arid savanna, thornveld, and light woodland typical of southern Africa. When settled agriculture arrived in its range about a thousand years ago, it adapted to cultivated land. Since then it has moved into towns.[12] While it occurs in urban centers, it prefers parks, gardens, and other open spaces, and has a low reproductive success in more built-up areas. The Cape Sparrow prefers habitats with an annual rainfall of less than 75 cm (30 in), though in desert areas it is usually found near watercourses or watering holes.[12]

In towns, the Cape Sparrow competes with both the native Southern Grey-headed Sparrow and the introduced House Sparrow.[13] Since it is more established around humans in its range than either, it successfully competes with both species, though they may exclude it from nesting in holes.[12][14]

Behaviour

The Cape Sparrow is social, living in flocks, and usually breeding in colonies. Away from humans it is nomadic, and forms flocks of up to 200 birds. In cultivated and built up areas, it forms smaller flocks where food is provided for livestock or birds. In such places, it associates with other seed-eating birds, such as the House Sparrow, the Cape Weaver, and Euplectes birds.[12] Birds from urban areas form flocks seasonally and fly out to nearby countryside to feed on ripening grain, returning at night to roost. Outside the breeding season, birds in uncultivated areas roost in old nests or dense bushes, but the birds of farmland and towns build special nests for roosting.[12]

An unusual social behaviour has been described from Cape Sparrows in Johannesburg. Groups of 20–30 birds separate from larger flocks and stand close together on the ground with tails on the ground and heads held high. These groups sometimes move in an unconcerted fashion by hopping slowly. Often birds will fly up and hover 30–60 cm (12–24 in) above the ground. During these gatherings birds are silent and are never antagonistic. This behaviour's significance is unknown, and it is not reported in any other sparrow.[12]

The Cape Sparrow mostly eats seeds, foraging in trees and on the ground.[15] The larger seeds of cereals, wild grasses, and other small plants are preferred, with wheat and khakiweed (Alternanthera caracasana) being favourites. Buds and soft fruits are also taken, causing considerable damage to agriculture. Insects are eaten, and nestlings seem to fed exclusively on caterpillars. The Cape Sparrow eats the soft shoots of plants, and probes in aloes for nectar, but these habits are not important sources of food.[16]

Breeding

Male feeding a fledgeling

The Cape Sparrow usually breeds in loose colonies of 50–100 birds. 10 to 20 percent of the breeding birds in each population nest away from colonies, for unknown reasons.[17] The Cape Sparrow usually is monogamous, but some records of a male and two females nesting and raising young in one nest have been made in Western Cape.[18] It seems pairs are formed in the non-breeding flocks, but it is not known how pairs are formed, or if the pair bond is for life. Once ready to breed, newly mated pairs look for a suitable nesting site, spending mornings searching, and returning to their flock in the afternoon. Once a site has been selected, both birds begin to build their nest. Other pairs seeking a nest site join them, and in this matter a colony forms quickly.[17]

The Cape Sparrow utilises a variety of nesting sites, including holes as well as open locations. Bushes and trees, especially acacias, seem to be preferred.[17] Many nests may be built in a single tree.[19] Holes and other covered sites are chosen less frequently. Nests have been recorded from the eaves of buildings, on creepers on walls, in holes in earth banks, and in holes in haystacks. Sometimes the Cape Sparrow nests in the disused nests of other birds, such as weavers and swallows. Pairs that nest away from colonies usually choose low bushes or utility poles as nesting sites.[17] Nests are placed at least a metre above the ground, and can be only a few centimetres apart in colonies. Only the nest and its very close vicinity are defended as a territory. Males defend their territory with threatening postures, and sometimes by fighting with bills on the ground.[17]

Nests built in the open are large and untidy domed structures. Nests are built mainly of dry grass and twigs, with a soft lining of plant down. Any leaves or thorns present in a nest tree are worked into the nest. In cavity nests, the hole is simply filled with a shapeless mass of grass with a cup of soft material containing the eggs on the inside. When the disused nests of weavers are utilised, they are simply given a soft lining. The nest entrance is in the side, and is sometimes extended into a funnel. The male and the female construct the nest together, keeping close when finding material and weaving it together.[17][20]

The courtship display is poorly recorded. British ornithologist J. Denis Summers-Smith observed a display in which the male hopped beside the female in a tree, drooping its wings and ruffling the chestnut-coloured feathers on its back. Groups of two or more males have been observed chasing a female. In the House Sparrow a similar display exists, in which a female who is not ready to copulate is chased by her mate, who is joined by other males. It is not known if the display in the Cape Sparrow has a similar significance. When ready to mate, the female crouches in solicitation and is mounted by the male.[21]

Clutches contain between two and six eggs, typically three or four. Clutches are larger further south, and during the peak of the breeding season.[21]

Both birds of a pair incubate the eggs during the day, switching every ten or fifteen minutes. At night, only the female incubates the eggs, while the male roosts outside or in the nest. In pairs breeding outside of colonies, birds leave the nest to make room for their mates upon hearing their mates approaching. Among colonial pairs, the incubating bird waits until its partner arrives in the nest, to prevent other birds from entering the nest.[21] Incubation seems to begin before the clutch is complete, and lasts 12–24 days. The young of a clutch hatch over two or three days and are brooded until their feathers develop and eyes open five days after hatching. The young are fed on insects until they fledge 16 to 25, typically 17, days after hatching. After this they are fed for one or two weeks. While feeding nestlings, the female is dominant over the male.[21]

The Cape Sparrow is among the main hosts of the brood parasitic Dideric Cuckoo,[14] and has been recorded parasitising its conspecifics.[22]

Instances of hybridisation with the House Sparrow,[6] the Southern Grey-headed Sparrow, and the Sudan Golden Sparrow have been reported.[23]

Relationships with humans

The Cape Sparrow is an abundant and familiar bird of human habitations and cultivation in most of southern Africa. It is an agricultural pest, especially to grain cultivation and vineyards. When vineyards in the southwest Cape started letting weeds grow between vines to conserve moisture around 1956, the Cape Sparrow moved in. Cape Sparrows quickly exhausted the seeds and started eating the grapes. The Cape Sparrow is now a serious pest in vineyards, but in these areas they have such a low reproductive success their populations cannot be maintained without immigration.[6][12]

The Cape Sparrow has been featured on several coins of the South African rand,[24] and on stamps from Lesotho and the Central African Republic.[25]

References

  1. ^ a b Template:IUCN
  2. ^ a b c d e Clement, Harris & Davis 1993, pp. 456–457
  3. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 68
  4. ^ Stark 1900, pp. 159–162
  5. ^ a b c Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 76–77
  6. ^ a b c d Summers-Smith 2009, p. 800 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSummers-Smith2009 (help) Cite error: The named reference "HBW" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 305
  8. ^ Allende, Luis M. (2001). "The Old World sparrows (genus Passer) phylogeography and their relative abundance of nuclear mtDNA pseudogenes" (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 53 (2): 144–154. doi:10.1007/s002390010202. PMID 11479685. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ González, Javier; Siow, Melanie; Garcia-del-Rey, Eduardo; Delgado, Guillermo; and Wink, Michael (2008). Phylogenetic relationships of the Cape Verde Sparrow based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA (PDF). Systematics 2008, Göttingen. Retrieved 7 February 2010.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Gotch 1996, pp. 442–443
  11. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 13
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 70–71
  13. ^ Summers-Smith, J. D. (1990). "Changes in distribution and habitat utilisation by members of the genus Passer". Granivorous birds in the agricultural landscape. Warszawa: Pánstwowe Wydawnictom Naukowe. pp. 11–29. ISBN 83-01-08460-X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ a b Dean, W. R. J. (1997). "Cape Sparrow". The Atlas of Southern African Birds (PDF). Vol. 1. BirdLife South Africa. pp. 540–541. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Dean, W. R. J. (2005). "Cape Sparrow Passer melanurus". Roberts Birds of Southern Africa (7th. ed.). Cape Town: The Trustees of the John Voelcker Bird Book Fund. pp. 1084–1086. ISBN 0-620-34053-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ Summers-Smith 1988, p. 77
  17. ^ a b c d e f Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 71–72
  18. ^ Oschadleus, H. Dieter; Brooks, Michael (2008). "Bigamy in Cape Sparrows". Bird Numbers. 14: 18–19. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2011.
  19. ^ Dean, W. R. J. (1989). "Cape Sparrow". The Complete Book of Southern African Birds. Cape Town: Struik Winchester. p. 652. ISBN 0-947430-11-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Milton, Sue; Dean, Richard (1999). "Nesting Thyme: The use of aromatic plants in Cape Sparrow nests". Africa Birds & Birding. 4 (1): 37–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2010.
  21. ^ a b c d Summers-Smith 1988, pp. 73–75
  22. ^ MacWhirter, R. Bruce (1989). "On the Rarity of Intraspecific Brood Parasitism" (PDF). The Condor. 91 (2): 485–492. doi:10.2307/1368333. JSTOR 1368333.
  23. ^ McCarthy 2006, pp. 268–267
  24. ^ "One Cent (1c)". The South African Mint Company. 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
  25. ^ Scharning, Kjell. "Cape Sparrow stamps". Theme Birds on Stamps. Retrieved 25 May 2010.
Works cited
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