Chen–Ho encoding
Chen–Ho encoding is a memory-efficient alternate system of binary encoding for decimal digits.
The traditional system of binary encoding for decimal digits, known as binary-coded decimal (BCD), uses four bits to encode each digit, resulting in significant wastage of binary data bandwidth (since four bits can store 16 states and are being used to store only 10).[1]
The encoding reduces the storage requirements of two decimal digits (100 states) from 8 to 7 bits, and those of three decimal digits (1000 states) from 12 to 10 bits using only simple Boolean{dn|date=September 2018}} transformations avoiding any complex arithmetic operations like a base conversion.
History
In what appears to have been a multiple discovery, some of the concepts behind what later became known as Chen–Ho encoding were independently developed by Theodore M. Hertz in 1969[2] and by Tien Chi Chen in 1971.[3]
Hertz of Rockwell filed a patent for his encoding in 1969, which was granted in 1971.[2]
Chen first discussed his ideas with Irving Tze Ho[4] in 1971. Chen and Ho were both working for IBM at the time, although in different locations.[5][6] Chen also consulted with Frank C. Tung[7] to verify the results of his theories independently.[6] IBM filed a patent in their name in 1973, which was granted in 1974.[8] At least by 1973 Hertz's earlier work must have been known to them, as the patent cites his patent as prior art.[8]
The final version of the Chen–Ho encoding was circulated inside IBM in 1974[9] and published in 1975 in the journal Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery (CACM).[10][11] This version included several refinements, primarily related to the application of the encoding system. It constitutes a Huffman-like prefix code.
The encoding became known as Chen–Ho encoding or Chen–Ho algorithm only since 2000.[11] After having filed a patent in 2001,[12] Michael F. Cowlishaw published a further refinement of Chen–Ho encoding known as Densely Packed Decimal (DPD) encoding in IEE Proceedings – Computers and Digital Techniques in 2002.[13][14] Densely Packed Decimal has subsequently been adopted as the decimal encoding used in the IEEE 754-2008 and ISO/IEC/IEEE 60559:2011 floating-point standards.
Application
Chen noted that the digits zero through seven were simply encoded using three binary digits of the corresponding octal group. He also postulated that one could use a flag to identify a different encoding for the digits eight and nine, which would be encoded using a single bit.
In practice, a series of Boolean transformations are applied to the stream of input bits, compressing BCD encoded digits from 12 bits per three digits to 10 bits per three digits. Reversed transformations are used to decode the resulting coded stream to BCD. Equivalent results can also be achieved by the use of a look-up table.
Chen–Ho encoding is limited to encoding sets of three decimal digits into groups of 10 bits (so called declets).[1] Of the 1024 states possible by using 10 bits, it leaves only 24 states unused[1] (with don't care bits typically set to 0 on write and ignored on read). With only 0.34% wastage it gives a 20% more efficient encoding than BCD with one digit in 4 bits.[6][11]
Both Hertz and Chen also proposed similar, but less efficient, encoding schemes to compress sets of two decimal digits (requiring 8 bits in BCD) into groups of 7 bits.[2][6]
Larger sets of decimal digits could by divided into three- and two-digit groups.[2]
The patents also discuss the possibility to adapt the scheme to digits encoded in any other decimal codes than BCD, like f.e. Excess-3.[2] The same principles could also be applied to other bases.
In 1973, some form of Chen–Ho encoding appears to have been utilized in the address conversion hardware of the optional IBM 7070/7074 emulation feature for the IBM System/370 Model 165 and 370 Model 168 computers.[15][16]
One prominent application uses a 128-bit register to store 33 decimal digits with a three digit exponent, effectively not less than what could be achieved using binary encoding (whereas BCD encoding would need 144 bits to store the same number of digits).
| BCD | Necessary bits | Bit difference | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Digits | States | Bits | Binary code space | Binary encoding [A] | 2-digit encoding [B] | 3-digit encoding [C] | Mixed encoding | Mixed vs. Binary | Mixed vs. BCD |
| 1 | 10 | 4 | 16 | 4 | (7) | (10) | 4 [1×A] | 0 | 0 |
| 2 | 100 | 8 | 128 | 7 | 7 | (10) | 7 [1×B] | 0 | −1 |
| 3 | 1000 | 12 | 1024 | 10 | (14) | 10 | 10 [1×C] | 0 | −2 |
| 4 | 10000 | 16 | 16384 | 14 | 14 | (20) | 14 [2×B] | 0 | −2 |
| 5 | 100000 | 20 | 131072 | 17 | (21) | (20) | 17 [1×C+1×B] | 0 | −3 |
| 6 | 1000000 | 24 | 1048576 | 20 | 21 | 20 | 20 [2×C] | 0 | −4 |
| 7 | 10000000 | 28 | 16777216 | 24 | (28) | (30) | 24 [2×C+1×A] | 0 | −4 |
| 8 | 100000000 | 32 | 134217728 | 27 | 28 | (30) | 27 [2×C+1×B] | 0 | −5 |
| 9 | 1000000000 | 36 | 1073741824 | 30 | (35) | 30 | 30 [3×C] | 0 | −6 |
| 10 | 10000000000 | 40 | 17179869184 | 34 | 35 | (40) | 34 [3×C+1×A] | 0 | −6 |
| 11 | 100000000000 | 44 | 137438953472 | 37 | (42) | (40) | 37 [3×C+1×B] | 0 | −7 |
| 12 | 1000000000000 | 48 | 1099511627776 | 40 | 42 | 40 | 40 [4×C] | 0 | −8 |
| 13 | 10000000000000 | 52 | 17592186044416 | 44 | (49) | (50) | 44 [4×C+1×A] | 0 | −8 |
| 14 | 100000000000000 | 56 | 140737488355328 | 47 | 49 | (50) | 47 [4×C+1×B] | 0 | −9 |
| 15 | 1000000000000000 | 60 | 1125899906842624 | 50 | (56) | 50 | 50 [5×C] | 0 | −10 |
| 16 | 10000000000000000 | 64 | 18014398509481984 | 54 | 56 | (60) | 54 [5×C+1×A] | 0 | −10 |
| 17 | 100000000000000000 | 68 | 144115188075855872 | 57 | (63) | (60) | 57 [5×C+1×B] | 0 | −11 |
| 18 | 1000000000000000000 | 72 | 1152921504606846976 | 60 | 63 | 60 | 60 [6×C] | 0 | −12 |
| 19 | 10000000000000000000 | 76 | 18446744073709551616 | 64 | (70) | (70) | 64 [6×C+1×A] | 0 | −12 |
| 20 | … | 80 | … | 67 | 70 | (70) | 67 [6×C+1×B] | 0 | −13 |
| 21 | … | 84 | … | 70 | (77) | 70 | 70 [7×C] | 0 | −14 |
| 22 | … | 88 | … | 74 | 77 | (80) | 74 [7×C+1×A] | 0 | −14 |
| 23 | … | 92 | … | 77 | (84) | (80) | 77 [7×C+1×B] | 0 | −15 |
| 24 | … | 96 | … | 80 | 84 | 80 | 80 [8×C] | 0 | −16 |
| 25 | … | 100 | … | 84 | (91) | (90) | 84 [8×C+1×A] | 0 | −16 |
| 26 | … | 104 | … | 87 | 91 | (90) | 87 [8×C+1×B] | 0 | −17 |
| 27 | … | 108 | … | 90 | (98) | 90 | 90 [9×C] | 0 | −18 |
| 28 | … | 112 | … | 94 | 98 | (100) | 94 [9×C+1×A] | 0 | −18 |
| 29 | … | 116 | … | 97 | (105) | (100) | 97 [9×C+1×B] | 0 | −19 |
| 30 | … | 120 | … | 100 | 105 | 100 | 100 [10×C] | 0 | −20 |
| 31 | … | 124 | … | 103 | (112) | (110) | 104 [10×C+1×A] | +1 | −20 |
| 32 | … | 128 | … | 107 | 112 | (110) | 107 [10×C+1×B] | 0 | −21 |
| 33 | … | 132 | … | 110 | (119) | 110 | 110 [11×C] | 0 | −22 |
| 34 | … | 136 | … | 113 | 119 | (120) | 114 [11×C+1×A] | +1 | −22 |
| 35 | … | 140 | … | 117 | (126) | (120) | 117 [11×C+1×B] | 0 | −23 |
| 36 | … | 144 | … | 120 | 126 | 120 | 120 [12×C] | 0 | −24 |
| 37 | … | 148 | … | 123 | (133) | (130) | 124 [12×C+1×A] | +1 | −24 |
| 38 | … | 152 | … | 127 | 133 | (130) | 127 [12×C+1×B] | 0 | −25 |
| … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … | … |
Encodings for three decimal digits
Hertz encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (1024 states) | b9 | b8 | b7 | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d2 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (1000 states) | |
| 50.0% (512 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 0abc | 0def | 0ghi | (0–7) (0–7) (0–7) | Three lower digits | 51.2% (512 states) | |
| 37.5% (384 states) | 1 | 0 | 0 | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 100c | 0def | 0ghi | (8–9) (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits, one higher digit |
38.4% (384 states) | |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | f | a | b | c | g | h | i | 0abc | 100f | 0ghi | (0–7) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 0 | i | a | b | c | d | e | f | 0abc | 0def | 100i | (0–7) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 9.375% (96 states) | 1 | 1 | 1 | f | 0 | 0 | i | a | b | c | 0abc | 100f | 100i | (0–7) (8–9) (8–9) | One lower digit, two higher digits |
9.6% (96 states) | |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 0 | 1 | i | d | e | f | 100c | 0def | 100i | (8–9) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 1 | 0 | f | g | h | i | 100c | 100f | 0ghi | (8–9) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 3.125% (32 states, 8 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 1 | 1 | f | (0) | (0) | i | 100c | 100f | 100i | (8–9) (8–9) (8–9) | Three higher digits, bits b2 and b1 are don't care | 0.8% (8 states) | |
Early Chen–Ho encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (1024 states) | b9 | b8 | b7 | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d2 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (1000 states) | |
| 50.0% (512 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 0abc | 0def | 0ghi | (0–7) (0–7) (0–7) | Three lower digits | 51.2% (512 states) | |
| 37.5% (384 states) | 1 | 0 | 0 | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 100c | 0def | 0ghi | (8–9) (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits, one higher digit |
38.4% (384 states) | |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | f | g | h | i | a | b | c | 0abc | 100f | 0ghi | (0–7) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 0 | i | a | b | c | d | e | f | 0abc | 0def | 100i | (0–7) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 9.375% (96 states) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | f | i | a | b | c | 0abc | 100f | 100i | (0–7) (8–9) (8–9) | One lower digit, two higher digits |
9.6% (96 states) | |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | i | c | d | e | f | 100c | 0def | 100i | (8–9) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | c | f | g | h | i | 100c | 100f | 0ghi | (8–9) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 3.125% (32 states, 8 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | f | i | (0) | (0) | 100c | 100f | 100i | (8–9) (8–9) (8–9) | Three higher digits, bits b2 and b1 are don't care | 0.8% (8 states) | |
Patented Chen–Ho encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (1024 states) | b9 | b8 | b7 | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d2 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (1000 states) | |
| 50.0% (512 states) | 0 | a | b | d | e | g | h | c | f | i | 0abc | 0def | 0ghi | (0–7) (0–7) (0–7) | Three lower digits | 51.2% (512 states) | |
| 37.5% (384 states) | 1 | 0 | 0 | d | e | g | h | c | f | i | 100c | 0def | 0ghi | (8–9) (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits, one higher digit |
38.4% (384 states) | |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | a | b | g | h | c | f | i | 0abc | 100f | 0ghi | (0–7) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 0 | d | e | a | b | c | f | i | 0abc | 0def | 100i | (0–7) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 9.375% (96 states) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | a | b | c | f | i | 0abc | 100f | 100i | (0–7) (8–9) (8–9) | One lower digit, two higher digits |
9.6% (96 states) | |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | d | e | c | f | i | 100c | 0def | 100i | (8–9) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | g | h | c | f | i | 100c | 100f | 0ghi | (8–9) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 3.125% (32 states, 8 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | (0) | (0) | c | f | i | 100c | 100f | 100i | (8–9) (8–9) (8–9) | Three higher digits, bits b2 and b1 are don't care | 0.8% (8 states) | |
Final Chen–Ho encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (1024 states) | b9 | b8 | b7 | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d2 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (1000 states) | |
| 50.0% (512 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 0abc | 0def | 0ghi | (0–7) (0–7) (0–7) | Three lower digits | 51.2% (512 states) | |
| 37.5% (384 states) | 1 | 0 | 0 | c | d | e | f | g | h | i | 100c | 0def | 0ghi | (8–9) (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits, one higher digit |
38.4% (384 states) | |
| 1 | 0 | 1 | c | a | b | f | g | h | i | 0abc | 100f | 0ghi | (0–7) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 0 | c | d | e | f | a | b | i | 0abc | 0def | 100i | (0–7) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 9.375% (96 states) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 0 | 0 | f | a | b | i | 0abc | 100f | 100i | (0–7) (8–9) (8–9) | One lower digit, two higher digits |
9.6% (96 states) | |
| 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 0 | 1 | f | d | e | i | 100c | 0def | 100i | (8–9) (0–7) (8–9) | ||||
| 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 1 | 0 | f | g | h | i | 100c | 100f | 0ghi | (8–9) (8–9) (0–7) | ||||
| 3.125% (32 states, 8 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | 1 | 1 | f | (0) | (0) | i | 100c | 100f | 100i | (8–9) (8–9) (8–9) | Three higher digits, bits b2 and b1 are don't care | 0.8% (8 states) | |
Encodings for two decimal digits
Hertz encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (128 states) | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (100 states) | |
| 50.0% (64 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | 0abc | 0def | (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits | 64.0% (64 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states) | 1 | 1 | 0 | c | d | e | f | 100c | 0def | (8–9) (0–7) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states) | 1 | 0 | 1 | f | a | b | c | 0abc | 100f | (0–7) (8–9) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states, 4 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | x | x | f | 100c | 100f | (8–9) (8–9) | Two higher digits | 4.0% (4 states) | |
Early Chen–Ho encoding, method A
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (128 states) | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (100 states) | |
| 50.0% (64 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | 0abc | 0def | (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits | 64.0% (64 states) | |
| 25.0% (32 states, 16 used) | 1 | 0 | x | c | d | e | f | 100c | 0def | (8–9) (0–7) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states) | 1 | 1 | 0 | f | a | b | c | 0abc | 100f | (0–7) (8–9) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states, 4 used) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | x | x | f | 100c | 100f | (8–9) (8–9) | Two higher digits | 4.0% (4 states) | |
Patented Chen–Ho encoding
| Binary encoding | Decimal digits | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Code space (128 states) | b6 | b5 | b4 | b3 | b2 | b1 | b0 | d1 | d0 | Values encoded | Description | Possibilities (100 states) | |
| 50.0% (64 states) | 0 | a | b | c | d | e | f | 0abc | 0def | (0–7) (0–7) | Two lower digits | 64.0% (64 states) | |
| 25.0% (32 states, 16 used) | 1 | 0 | x | c | d | e | f | 100c | 0def | (8–9) (0–7) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states) | 1 | 1 | 1 | c | a | b | f | 0abc | 100f | (0–7) (8–9) | One lower digit, one higher digit |
16.0% (16 states) | |
| 12.5% (16 states, 4 used) | 1 | 1 | 0 | c | x | x | f | 100c | 100f | (8–9) (8–9) | Two higher digits | 4.0% (4 states) | |
See also
- Binary-coded decimal (BCD)
- Densely packed decimal (DPD)
- Unicode transformation format (UTF) (similar encoding scheme)
- Length-limited Huffman code
References
- ^ a b c Muller, Jean-Michel; Brisebarre, Nicolas; de Dinechin, Florent; Jeannerod, Claude-Pierre; Lefèvre, Vincent; Melquiond, Guillaume; Revol, Nathalie; Stehlé, Damien; Torres, Serge (2010). Handbook of Floating-Point Arithmetic (1 ed.). Birkhäuser. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4705-6. ISBN 978-0-8176-4704-9. LCCN 2009939668.
- ^ a b c d e f g Hertz, Theodore M. (1971-11-02) [1969-12-15]. "System for the compact storage of decimal numbers" (US Patent). Whittier, CA, USA: North American Rockwell Corporation. US3618047A. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [1] [2] (NB. A coding system very similar to Chen-Ho, also cited as prior art in the Chen–Ho patent.)
- ^ "CHEN Tien Chi". Archived from the original on 2015-10-23. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Tseng, Li-Ling (1988-04-01). "High-Tech Leadership: Irving T. Ho". Taiwan Info. Archived from the original on 2016-01-01. Retrieved 2016-02-08.
{{cite web}}:|archive-date=/|archive-url=timestamp mismatch; 2016-02-08 suggested (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Chen, Tien Chi (1971-03-12). "Decimal-binary integer conversion scheme" (Internal memo to Irving Tze Ho). San Jose Research Laboratory: IBM.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c d e f Chen, Tien Chi (1971-03-29). "Decimal Number Compression" (PDF) (Internal memo to Irving Tze Ho). San Jose Research Laboratory: IBM: 1–4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-17. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "IBM资深专家Frank Tung博士8月4日来我校演讲". Archived from the original on 2004-12-08. Retrieved 2016-02-06.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c d Chen, Tien Chi; Ho, Irving Tze (1974-10-15) [1973-06-18]. Written at San Jose, CA, USA & Poughkeepsie, NY, USA. "Binary coded decimal conversion apparatus" (US Patent). Armonk, NY, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). US3842414A. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [3] [4] (NB. This patent is about the Chen–Ho algorithm.)
- ^ Chen, Tien Chi; Ho, Irving Tze (1974-06-25). "Storage-Efficient Representation of Decimal Data". Research Report RJ 1420 (Technical report). IBM Research Lab, San Jose, USA: IBM.
- ^ a b Chen, Tien Chi; Ho, Irving Tze (January 1975). "Storage-Efficient Representation of Decimal Data". Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery (CACM). 18 (1): 49–52. doi:10.1145/360569.360660. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- ^ a b c d Cowlishaw, Michael Frederic (2014) [2000]. "A Summary of Chen-Ho Decimal Data encoding". IBM. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Cowlishaw, Michael Frederic (2003-02-25) [2002-05-20, 2001-01-27]. Written at Coventry, UK. "Decimal to binary coder/decoder" (US Patent). Armonk, NY, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). US6525679B1. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [5] and Cowlishaw, Michael Frederic (2007-11-07) [2004-01-14, 2002-08-14, 2001-09-24, 2001-01-27]. Written at Winchester, Hampshire, UK. "Decimal to binary coder/decoder" (European Patent). Armonk, NY, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). EP1231716A2. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [6] [7] [8] (NB. This patent about DPD also discusses the Chen–Ho algorithm.)
- ^ Cowlishaw, Michael Frederic (May 2002). "Densely Packed Decimal Encoding". IEE Proceedings – Computers and Digital Techniques. 149 (3). London: Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE): 102–104. doi:10.1049/ip-cdt:20020407. ISSN 1350-2387. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
- ^ Cowlishaw, Michael Frederic (2007-02-13) [2000]. "A Summary of Densely Packed Decimal encoding". IBM. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2016-02-07.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ Savard, John J. G. (2018) [2007]. "Chen-Ho Encoding and Densely Packed Decimal". quadibloc. Archived from the original on 2018-07-16. Retrieved 2018-07-16.
{{cite web}}:|archive-date=/|archive-url=timestamp mismatch; 2018-07-03 suggested (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ 7070/7074 Compatibility Feature for IBM System/370 Models 165, 165 II, and 168 (PDF) (2 ed.). IBM. June 1973 [1970]. GA22-6958-1 (File No. 5/370-13). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-22. Retrieved 2018-07-21.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help)
Further reading
- Smith, Alan Jay (August 1975). "Comments on a paper by T. C. Chen and I. T. Ho". Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery (CACM). 18 (8): 463. doi:10.1145/360933.360986. ISSN 0001-0782. CODEN CACMA2. Retrieved 2018-07-19. (NB. A publication also discussing Chen-Ho alternatives and variations.)
- Bonten, Jo H. M. (2009-10-06) [2006-10-05]. "Packed Decimal Encoding IEEE-754-2008". Archived from the original on 2018-07-11. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - Savard, John J. G. (2018) [2001]. "Base-26 Armor". quadibloc. Archived from the original on 2018-07-21. Retrieved 2018-07-21.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - Rinaldi, Russell G.; Moore, Brian B. (1967-03-21) [1964-06-30]. Written at Poughkeepsie, NY, USA & New Paltz, NY, USA. "Data compression/expansion and compressed data processing" (US Patent). New York, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). US3310786A. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [9], Rinaldi, Russell G.; Moore, Brian B. (1969-05-20) [1967-01-19, 1964-06-30]. Written at Poughkeepsie, NY, USA & New Paltz, NY, USA. "Serial digital adder employing a compressed data format" (US Patent). New York, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). US3445641A. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [10] and Rinaldi, Russell G.; Moore, Brian B. (1969-03-11) [1967-01-19, 1964-06-30]. Written at Poughkeepsie, NY, USA & New Paltz, NY, USA. "Data compression/expansion and compressed data processing" (US Patent). New York, USA: International Business Machines Corporation (IBM). US3432811A. Retrieved 2018-07-18. [11] (NB. A patent cited in both, the Hertz and Chen–Ho patents.)