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[[Image:Imagine no religion.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A sign that criticizes religion and draws attention to the [[September 11 attacks]], by the Connecticut Valley Atheists in Rockville's Central Park, [[Vernon, Connecticut|Vernon]] in December 2007. The group issued an explanatory press release, stating: "Clearly, 9/11 is the work of fanatics. However, we feel that religion even in moderation provides a foundation for fanatical groups to thrive."<ref>[http://www.cvatheists.org/news/?p=1 "The Vernon Atheist Display,"] Press Release, CT Valley Atheists, December 17, 2007 . Retrieved October 1, 2008.</ref>]]
'''Criticism of religion''' is [[criticism]] of the concepts, validity, and/or practices of [[religion]], including associated political and social implications.<ref>{{cite book|last=Beckford|first=James|title=Social Theory and & Relgion|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|date=2003}}</ref>{{page needed}}

Religious criticism has a long history, going back as far as the first century BCE in [[ancient Rome|Rome]] with [[Titus Lucretius Carus]]'s ''[[De Rerum Natura]]'', and continuing to the present day with the advent of [[new atheism]], represented by such authors as [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], [[Daniel Dennett]], [[Richard Dawkins]], and [[Christopher Hitchens]].

Critics consider religion to be outdated, to be harmful to the individual (e.g. [[brainwashing]] of children, [[faith healing]], [[circumcision]]), to be harmful to society (e.g. [[holy war]]s, [[terrorism]], wasteful distribution of resources), to impede the progress of [[science]], and to encourage immoral acts (e.g. blood sacrifice, [[homophobia|discrimination against homosexuals]] [[misogyny|and women]]).<ref name="Hitchens 2007">{{cite book|last=Hitchens|first=Christopher|title=God is not Great|publisher=Twelve|date=2007}}</ref>{{page needed}}<ref name="Dawkins 2006">{{cite book|last=Dawkins|first=Richard|title=The God Delusion|publisher=Bantam Books|date=2006}}</ref>{{page needed}}

Some critics of religion, including Dennett, Harris, and Hitchens, assert that theist religions and their [[holy book]]s are not divinely inspired, but instead are fabrications of non-divine human individuals, created to fulfill social, biological, and political needs.<ref>{{Cite book
| title=[[Breaking the Spell]]
| publisher=Allen Lane
| year=2006
| isbn=0713997893
| first=Daniel
| last=Dennett
| authorlink=Daniel Dennett
}}</ref>{{page needed}}<ref>{{Cite book
| title=[[The End of Faith]]
| publisher=W. W. Norton
| year=2005
| isbn=0393327655
| first=Sam
| last=Harris
| authorlink=Sam Harris
}}</ref>{{page needed}}<ref>{{Cite book
| title=[[God is not Great]]
| publisher=Twelve
| year=2007
| isbn=0446579807
| first=Christopher
| last=Hitchens
| authorlink=Christopher Hitchens
}}</ref>{{page needed}} Dawkins balances the benefits of religious beliefs (mental solace, community-building, promotion of virtuous behavior) against the drawbacks.<ref>{{Cite book
| title=[[The God Delusion]]
| publisher=Houghton Mifflin
| year=2006
| isbn=0-618-68000-4
| first=Richard
| last=Dawkins
| authorlink=Richard Dawkins
}}</ref>{{page needed}}

== History ==
The first century BCE Roman poet, [[Titus Lucretius Carus]], in his magnum opus [[De Rerum Natura]], wrote:
"But 'tis that same religion oftener far / Hath bred the foul impieties of men:"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://books.mirror.org/gb.lucretius.html |author=Titus Lucretius Carus|authorlink=Titus Lucretius Carus |title=De Rerum Natura |accessdate=2007-08-05 |work=}}</ref>

A philosopher of the [[Epicurean]] school, Lucretius believed the world was composed solely of matter and void, and that all phenomena could be understood as resulting from purely natural causes. Lucretius, like [[Epicurus]], felt that religion was born of fear and ignorance, and that understanding the natural world would free people of its shackles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lucretiu.htm |title=Lucretius [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] |accessdate=2007-08-05 |work=}}</ref>

Writing in 1776 of the ancient Romans, [[Edward Gibbon]] said: "The various modes of worship which prevailed in the Roman world were all considered by the people as equally true; by the philosopher as equally false; and by the magistrate as equally useful."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1365&chapter=50990&layout=html |title=Online Library of Liberty - The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1, chp ii |accessdate=2007-08-25 |work=}}</ref>

[[Niccolò Machiavelli]], at the beginning of the sixteenth century said: "We Italians are irreligious and corrupt above others... because the church and her representatives have set us the worst example."<ref name="isbn014044534x">{{cite book |author=S. G. C. Middlemore; Burckhardt, Jacob; Murray, Peter; Burke, Peter |title=The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (Penguin Classics) |publisher=Penguin Classics |location= |year= 1990|pages= |isbn=014044534x |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> To Machiavelli, religion was merely a tool, useful for a ruler wishing to manipulate public opinion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1232/1232-h/1232-h.htm |title=The Prince, by Nicolo Machiavelli |accessdate=2007-08-10 |work=}}</ref>

[[Deism]] became prominent in the 17th and 18th centuries during the [[Age of Enlightenment]], especially in the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and the [[United States]], mostly among those raised as Christians who found they could not believe in either the doctrine of the [[Trinity]], the [[divinity of Jesus]], [[miracles]], or the [[biblical inerrancy|inerrancy of scriptures]], but who did believe in [[monotheism|one god]]. Initially it did not form any congregations, but in time deism strongly influenced other religious groups, such as [[Unitarianism]] and [[Universalism]], which developed from it. It continues to this day in the form of classical deism and modern deism.

Interest in and controversy over criticism of religion has increased in the 21st century due to the spread of so-called [[History of atheism#21st century|new atheism]].

== Criticism of the concept ==
Many critics of religion see significant difficulties in the concept of religion. Their concern is that many religious concepts contradict modern scientific and cultural values, and have a negative impact on current social and ethical issues.

=== Irrational and unreasonable ===
[[Image:WJT2005-RZ-Dino-vor-Plakat.jpg|thumb|250px|A dinosaur leading sheep. [[Cologne]], August 2005]]{{See also|Faith and rationality}}

A major criticism of many religions is that they require beliefs that are irrational, un-scientific, or unreasonable. There are several aspects to this criticism, including:

* Religions often posit facts that are contradicted by scientific evidence (e.g. [[evolution]], [[cosmology|origin of the universe]], [[miracles]])
* Religions often require behaviors that are not sensible (e.g. [[Old Testament]] prohibition against wearing garments of mixed fabrics, or punishing children of guilty parents)
* Religions and their holy books often contain conflicting facts or histories (e.g. discrepancies between the four [[Gospels]] of the [[New Testament]])
* Religions are not distinguishable from [[fairy tales]] or [[superstitions]] (such as [[astrology]] or [[Santa Claus]])
* Religions cannot adapt to a changing world and their teachings are outdated in comparison with modern Western morals.

Many religions promote facts and histories that are contradicted by science. These often form the basis of significant controversies, such as the trial of [[Galileo]] for his purported heresy that the earth moves around the sun. The origin of the human species, as presented by many Christian sects, is contradicted by the scientific theory of [[evolution]]. The origin of the earth or universe is often described by holy books in the form of [[creation myth]]s, which are contradicted by scientific theories of [[cosmology]]. In other cases, religions assert the factual existence of phenomena such as [[miracles]] and [[angels]], which are not necessarily [[negative proof|contradicted by science]], but find little or no scientific support.

Many religions and their holy books contain rules and laws designed to govern behavior and conduct. Critics point out that many of these rules&nbsp;— within a single religion&nbsp;— are contradictory or impossible to follow.

Another criticism addressing the irrational nature of some religions is the fact that many of the stories and facts are contradictory, hence not reasonable.

Religious adherents counter these arguments by suggesting that all religions, by definition, involve faith, or a belief in concepts that cannot be proven or disproven by science. [[C. S. Lewis]] was a notable Christian apologist that promoted that concept. Scientist [[Stephen Jay Gould]] agreed and suggested that religion and science were [[non-overlapping magisteria]].

=== Conflicting claims of "one true faith" ===
{{see also|Argument from inconsistent revelations}}
Some critics of religion{{Who|date=November 2009}} discuss the multiplicity of religions that claim to be the one true faith, such as [[Roman Catholicism]], [[Mormonism]], or [[Evangelical Christianity]]. Critics point out that if two or more religions claim to be the only valid faith, then logic dictates that the claims of all but one of those religions must be wrong. Atheist Stephen Roberts illustrates this principle as follows:
{{cquote2|I contend that we are both atheists. I just believe in one fewer god than you do. When you understand why you dismiss all the other possible gods, you will understand why I dismiss yours.|Stephen F. Roberts,<ref>{{cite book | title=Like Rolling Uphill: Realizing the Honesty of Atheism | author=Dianna Narciso | isbn=1932560742 | page=6 | year=2003 | publisher=Llumina Press | location=Coral Springs, FL}}</ref> quoted in ''Like Rolling Uphill''}}

Survey research from the US indicates that many people change their religious affiliation over time. Those with no religious affiliation are the fastest growing group. However, this group has a relatively low retention rate (46%) when compared to other groups. Such data suggest that significant numbers of people do not believe consistently that a single faith is uniquely true.<ref>[http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-chapter-2.pdf "Changes in Americans’ Religious Affiliation,"] ''U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Chapter 2'', Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, [[Pew Research Center]], February 2008</ref>

=== Social construct ===
{{See also|Development of religion}}

Many criticisms hinge on the proposition that religion is a [[social construct]] and thus just another human [[ideology]]. Under this view, the origins of religion lie in human beings and human [[society|societies]], not in the intervention of some divine being or cosmic truth. Accordingly, the historicity of religious accounts is called into question.

==== Narratives to provide comfort and meaning ====
[[Image:Christopher Hitchens crop.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Christopher Hitchens]], author of ''[[God is not Great]]'']]
With certain exceptions, such as [[Raëlism]], [[Mormonism]], [[Scientology]], and the [[Bahá'í Faith]], most religions were formulated at a time when the origin of life, the workings of the body, and the nature of the stars and planets were poorly understood.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dennett, Daniel Clement |title=Breaking the Spell : Religion as a Natural Phenomenon |publisher=Viking Adult |location= |year= 2006|pages= |isbn=0-670-03472-X |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Religious systems attempted to address significant personal emotional issues, and tried to explain a frightening existence, usually through a dramatic narrative outlining how the world and their community came to be.

These narratives were intended to give solace and a sense of relationship with larger forces. As such, they may have served several important functions in ancient societies. Examples include the views many religions traditionally had towards solar and lunar eclipses, and the appearance of comets (e.g. [[astrology]]).<ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =When solar fears eclipse reason | work = | publisher =BBC News | date =2006-03-28 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4852690.stm | doi = | accessdate = | accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Comets in Ancient Cultures | work = | publisher =NASA | date = | url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/deepimpact/media/f_ancient.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>
Given current understanding in such fields as [[biology]], [[psychology]], [[chemistry]], and [[physics]], where human knowledge has increased dramatically, many critics&nbsp;— including [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Christopher Hitchens]], and [[Michel Onfray]]&nbsp;— contend that continuing to hold on to these idea systems is [[absurd]] and [[irrational]].<ref name=godisnotgreat>{{cite book | last=Hitchens | first=Christopher | authorlink=Christopher Hitchens | coauthors= | title=[[God is not Great|God is not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything]] | publisher= Twelve| year=2007 | location= New York| pages= | url= | doi= | isbn= 978-0446579803 }}</ref><ref name=dawkins2006>{{cite book | last=Dawkins | first=Richard | authorlink=Richard Dawkins | coauthors= | title=[[The God Delusion]] | publisher=[[Bantam Books]] | year =2006 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | isbn =0-618-68000-4 }}</ref><ref name="isbn1-55970-820-4">{{cite book |author=Onfray, Michel |authorlink=Michel Onfray |title=Atheist Manifesto: The Case Against Christianity, Judaism, and Islam |publisher=Arcade Publishing |location= |year= 2007|pages= |isbn=1-55970-820-4 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>

[[Stanford University|Stanford]] [[computer science|computer scientist]] [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] states, "We also have no need for [the hypothesis of God], because science has been successful, and science is the best approach to solving the mysteries that remain."<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Scientific Forms of the religious hypothesis | work = | publisher = | year =2001 | url =http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/religion.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> Apologists for religion such as [[William Lane Craig]], however, say that there are reasonable arguments supporting the [[existence of God]].<ref>[[William Lane Craig]], [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/article_print.html?id=56166 "God Is Not Dead Yet: How current philosophers argue for his existence,"] [[Christianity Today]], July 3, 2008</ref>

==== Opium of the people ====
[[Image:Karl Marx 001.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Karl Marx]]
{{cquote2|Religious suffering is, at the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the [[opium of the people]].|[[Karl Marx]]}}

According to [[Karl Marx]], religion is a tool utilized by the [[ruling class]]es whereby the masses can shortly relieve their suffering via the act of experiencing religious emotions. It is in the interest of the ruling classes to instill in the masses the religious conviction that their current suffering will lead to eventual happiness. Therefore as long as the public believes in religion, they will not attempt to make any genuine effort to understand and overcome the real source of their suffering, which in Marx's opinion was their [[capitalism|non-Communist economic system]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Marx | first =Karl | authorlink =Karl Marx | coauthors = | title = A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right | publisher =Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher | month =February | year =1844 | location = | pages = | url =http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm | doi = | id = }}</ref>

In this perspective, Marx saw religion as [[escapism]]:

<blockquote>The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions. The criticism of religion is, therefore, in embryo, the criticism of that vale of tears of which religion is the halo. - Karl Marx</blockquote>

Marx also viewed the Christian doctrine of [[original sin]] as being deeply [[anti-social]] in character. Original sin, he argued, convinces people that the source of their misery lies in the inherent and unchangeable "sinfulness" of humanity rather than in the forms of social organization and institutions, which, Marx argued, can be changed through the application of collective social planning.<ref>{{cite book | last =Marx | first =Karl | authorlink =Karl Marx | coauthors = | title =Das Kapital | publisher = | year =1867 | location = | url =http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch26.htm | doi = | id = | nopp =true| page =Volume 1, Part VIII }}</ref>

==== Viruses of the mind ====
[[Image:Richard dawkins lecture.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Richard Dawkins]], author of ''[[The God Delusion]]'' ]]
In his 1976 book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] coined the term [[memes]] to describe informational units that can be transmitted culturally, analogous to genes.<ref>{{cite book | last =Dawkins | first =Richard | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =[[The Selfish Gene]], 30th Anniversary edition | publisher = | year =2006 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref> He later used this concept in the essay "[[Viruses of the Mind]]" to explain the persistence of religious ideas in human culture.<ref>{{cite web | last =Dawkins | first =Richard | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Viruses of the Mind | work = | publisher = | year =1991 | url =http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/Dawkins/viruses-of-the-mind.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

Dawkins argues that religious ideologies are a set of ideas and concepts working together to ensure the perpetuation and proliferation of the religion itself. For instance, important concepts in [[Christianity]] are raising one's children to be Christians, following The [[Great Commission]] and its [[monotheist]]ic nature. These are proposed to work together to protect the religion from competition from other memes. In this context, religion is criticized for being [[Maladaptation|maladaptive]] in that it can cause the carrier of that meme to act irrationally, misallocate resources and feel guilt, fear or other negative emotions without real reason.

Religion apologist [[John Bowker]] criticized the idea that "God" and "Faith" are viruses of the mind, suggesting that Dawkins' "account of religious motivation ... is ... far removed from evidence and data" and that, even if the God-meme approach were valid, "it does not give rise to one set of consequences ... Out of the many behaviours it produces, why are we required to isolate only those that might be regarded as diseased?"<ref>In his 1992-3 [[Gresham College]] lectures, written in collaboration with the psychiatrist Quinton Deeley and published as ''Is God a Virus?'' (SPCK, 1995, 274pp). The quotes here come from p. 73.</ref> [[Alister McGrath]] has responded by arguing that "memes have no place in serious scientific reflection",<ref>''Dawkins's God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life'' p125 quoting [[Simon Conway Morris]] in support</ref> that there is strong evidence that such ideas are not spread by random processes, but by deliberate intentional actions,<ref>''Dawkins's God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life'' p126</ref> that "evolution" of ideas is more [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian]] than Darwinian,<ref>''Dawkins's God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life''p 127</ref> and that there is no evidence (and certainly none in the essay) that epidemiological models usefully explain the spread of religious ideas.<ref>''Dawkins's God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life'' p137-138</ref> McGrath also cites a metareview of 100 studies and argues that "[i]f religion is reported as having a positive effect on human well-being by 79% of recent studies in the field, how can it conceivably be regarded as analogous to a virus?"<ref>''Dawkins's God: Genes, Memes and the Meaning of Life'' p136 citing [[Harold G. Koenig|Koenig]] and Cohen ''The Link between Religion and Health'' OUP 2002</ref>

==== Mental illness or delusion ====
Critics such as author [[Richard Dawkins]] says that religious belief often involves delusional behavior.<ref>"The God Delusion", Richard Dawkins, 2006, Bantam Books</ref>{{page needed}} American author [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], author of ''[[The End of Faith]]'' and ''[[Letter to a Christian Nation]]'' compares religion to mental illness, saying it "allows otherwise normal human beings to reap the fruits of madness and consider them holy."<ref name=endoffaith>{{cite book | last=Harris | first=Sam | authorlink = | coauthors= | title=The End of Faith | publisher=W.W. Norton | year=2005 | location= | pages= | url=http://www.samharris.org/site/book_end_of_faith | doi = | id = }}</ref>{{page needed}}

There are also psychological studies into the phenomenon of [[mysticism]], and the links between disturbing aspects of certain mystic's experiences and their links to [[childhood abuse]].<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Psychology of Mysticism | work = | publisher =The Primal page | date = | url =http://primal-page.com/mysindex.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Mysticism and Psychopathology | work = | publisher =The Primal page | date = | url =http://primal-page.com/templobe.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Atlas | first =Jerrold | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Medieval Mystics' Lives As Self-Medication for Childhood Abuse | work = | publisher = | year =2003 | url =http://primal-page.com/atlas.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> In another line of research, [[Clifford A. Pickover]] explores evidence suggesting that temporal lobe epilepsy may be linked to a variety of spiritual or ‘other worldly’ experiences, such as [[spiritual possession]], originating from altered electrical activity in the brain.<ref>{{cite book | last =Pickover | first =Clifford | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Vision of the Chariot: Transcendent Experience and Temporal Lobe Epilepsy | publisher =Science & Spirit | date =September/October 1999 | location = | pages = | url =http://www.science-spirit.org/article_detail.php?article_id=130 | doi = | id = }}</ref> [[Carl Sagan]], in his last book ''[[The Demon-Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]'', presented his case for the miraculous sightings of religious figures in the past and the modern sightings of UFOs coming from the same mental disorder. According to Professor [[Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]], "It's possible that many great religious leaders had [[temporal lobe seizure]]s and this predisposes them to having visions, having mystical experiences."<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = God on the Brain | work = | publisher =BBC Science & Nature | date = | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/godonbraintrans.shtml | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> Dr. [[Michael Persinger]] stimulated the temporal lobes of the brain artificially with a magnetic field using a device nicknamed the "[[God helmet]]," and was able to artificially induce religious experiences along with [[near-death experience]]s and [[ghost]] sightings.<ref>{{cite news| author=[[Michael Shermer|Shermer, Michael]]| url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1374/is_6_59/ai_57800244| title=
Why People Believe in God: An Empirical Study on a Deep Question| publisher=American Humanist Association| page=2| date=1999-11-01| accessdate=2006-04-05}}</ref> Neuropsychology Professor John Bradshaw also says:
<blockquote>Some forms of temporal lobe tumours or epilepsy are associated with extreme religiosity. Recent brain imaging of devotees engaging in prayer or transcendental meditation has more precisely identified activation in such sites&nbsp;— God-spots, as Vilayanur Ramachandran calls them. [[Psilocybin]] from mushrooms contacts the serotonergic system, with terminals in these and other brain regions, generating a sense of cosmic unity, transcendental meaning and religious ecstasy. Certain physical rituals can generate both these feelings and corresponding serotonergic activity.<ref>{{cite news | last =Bradshaw | first =John | coauthors = | title =Ockham’s Razor, June 18, 2006, A God of the Gaps? | work = | pages = | language = | publisher =[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] | month =June | year =2006 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/2006/1664571.htm | accessdate = }}</ref></blockquote>

Religion apologist [[Keith Ward]] in his book ''[[Is Religion Dangerous?]]'' addresses the claim that religious belief is a "[[delusion]]." He quotes the definition in the ''Oxford Companion to Mind'' as "a fixed, idiosyncratic belief, unusual in the culture to which the person belongs," and notes that "[n]ot all false opinions are delusions." Ward then characterizes a delusion as a "clearly false opinion, especially as a symptom of a mental illness," an "irrational belief" that is "so obviously false that all reasonable people would see it as mistaken." He then says that belief in God is different, since "[m]ost great philosophers have believed in God, and they are rational people". He argues that "[a]ll that is needed to refute the claim that religious belief is a delusion is one clear example of someone who exhibits a high degree of rational ability, who functions well in the ordinary affairs of life ... and who can produce a reasonable and coherent defense of their beliefs" and claims that there are many such people, "including some of the most able philosophers and scientists in the world today."<ref>{{cite book | last =Ward | first =Keith | authorlink =Keith Ward | coauthors = | title =Is Religion Dangerous? | publisher = Lion| year =2006 | location =London:Lion Hudson Plc | url = | doi = | isbn = 978-0745952628 | page =172 }}</ref>

====Evolved characteristic of the human brain====
{{See also|Evolutionary psychology of religion|Evolutionary origin of religions}}
Some critics, such as [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[Pascal Boyer]], contend that religion is nothing more than a social construct that [[Evolutionary psychology of religion|primitive humans evolved]] to improve their odds of survival. Dawkins and others have posited that a pre-disposition to believe in superstitions and religion could enhance the survival of the human species, by enhancing fear of imagined (and sometimes real) dangers, and thus increasing the likelihood that humans would take pre-emptive defensive measures.

Recent research on the "God Spot" has found that several areas of the brain are involved in religious belief, one within the frontal lobes of the cortex&mdash;which are distinctively developed in humans&mdash;and another in the more evolutionary-ancient regions deeper inside the brain, which humans share with apes and other primates. The study found that people of different religious persuasions and beliefs, as well as atheists, all tended to use the same circuits in the brain to solve a perceived moral conundrum which were also the same ones used when religiously-inclined people dealt with issues related to God. The findings support the idea that the brain has evolved to be sensitive to any form of belief that improves the chances of survival and suggests the brain is inherently sensitive to believing in almost anything if there are grounds for doing so. This work was followed by a study where scientists tried to stimulate the temporal lobes with a rotating magnetic field. [[Michael Persinger]], from [[Laurentian University]] in [[Ontario]], found that he could artificially create the experience of religious feelings in 80% of volunteers.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/belief-and-the-brains--god-spot-1641022.html Belief and the brain's 'God spot'] [[The Independent]] March 10, 2009</ref>

=== Immature stage of societal development ===
[[Image:Daniel Huntington Philosophy and Christian Art.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Natural philosophy|Philosophy]] and [[Christian Art]]. W. Ridgway, 1878]]
Some critics of religion say that religion is merely an early phase during the development of a culture or society, and that religion is often replaced with more rational or reasonable belief systems. Many critics assert that the needs of religion can be met with alternative, superior means, namely: the need for explaining life and death can be met by [[science]] and [[philosophy]]; questions of [[Goodness and evil|good and evil]] are addressed by [[ethics]]; and inspiration and beauty can be found in [[the arts]].<ref>{{cite web | last =Stewart | first =Robert Charles | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Academy of Evolutionary Metaphysics, Replacing Religion with Science | work = | publisher =Academy of Evolutionary Metaphysics | date = | url =http://www.evolutionary-metaphysics.net/replacing_religion.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

[[Daniel Dennett]], author of ''[[Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon|Breaking the Spell]]'', said "I expect to live to see the evaporation of the powerful mystique of religion. I think that in about twenty-five years almost all religions will have evolved into very different phenomena, so much so that in most quarters religion will no longer command the awe it does today."<ref>{{cite web | last =Dennett | first =Daniel C | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Evaporation of the Powerful Mystique of Religion | work = | publisher = | date = | url =http://edge.org/q2007/q07_1.html#dennett | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

[[Geoffrey Miller (evolutionary psychologist)|Geoffrey Miller]],<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Geoffrey Miller website | work = | publisher = | date = | url =http://www.unm.edu/~psych/faculty/sm_gmiller.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> in the November 2006 edition of ''[[New Scientist]]'' said: "[[Evolution of morality|Evolutionary moral psychology]] will reveal the social conditions under which human moral virtues flourish. The US will follow the UK in realizing that religion is not a prerequisite for ordinary human decency. Thus, science will kill religion&nbsp;— not by reason challenging faith, but by offering a more practical, universal and rewarding moral framework for human interaction. A naturalistic moral philosophy will replace the rotting fictions of theological ethics."<ref>{{cite web | last =Miller | first =Geoffrey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Geoffrey Miller forecasts the future | work = | publisher =New Scientist | date =2006-11-18 | url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19225780.108-geoffrey-miller-forecasts-the-future.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> Dr. John Bradshaw, Professor of Neuropsychology at Monash University Melbourne wrote: "Evolutional models are every bit as beautiful and intellectually and morally satisfying as the myths, stories and precepts of an ossified theology&nbsp;— and they can explain, predict and be applied in hosts of important and socially useful ways."<ref>{{cite news | last =Bradshaw | first =John | coauthors = | title =Ockham’s Razor: A God of the Gaps? | work = | pages = | language = | publisher =[[ABC Radio National]] | date =2006-06-18 | url =http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/2006/1664571.htm | accessdate = }}</ref>

Philosopher [[Auguste Comte]] posited that many societal constructs pass through [[Law of three stages|three stages]], and that religion corresponds to the two earlier, or more primitive stages.
{{cquote2|From the study of the development of human intelligence, in all directions, and through all times, the discovery arises of a great fundamental law, to which it is necessarily subject, and which has a solid foundation of proof, both in the facts of our organization and in our historical experience. The law is this: that each of our leading conceptions -- each branch of our knowledge -- passes successively through three different theoretical conditions: the theological, or fictitious; the metaphysical, or abstract; and the scientific, or positive.|[[Auguste Comte]]}}

==== Obsolete religions ====
[[Image:IngresJupiterAndThetis.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Roman God [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]]]
Some critics, such as Opsopaus and Hitchens, cite obsolete religions&nbsp;— religions that no longer have active adherents&nbsp;— as evidence that religions are not everlasting, as they claim.<ref>{{cite book | last =Opsopaus | first =John | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Art of Haruspicy | work = | publisher = | date = | url http://www.cs.utk.edu/~mclennan/BA/Har.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref> Some obsolete religions discussed by critics include [[Greek mythology]], [[Millerism]], [[Roman mythology]], [[Sabbatai Sevi]], and [[Norse mythology]].<ref>"god is not Great", Christopher Hitchins, 2007, Twelve, p. 169-173.</ref> A short work by the ancient author [[Lucian of Samosata]], titled "The Syrian Goddess" provides many examples of once thriving religions that no longer exist.<ref>{{cite book | last =Strong | first =Herbert A | authorlink = | coauthors =John Garstang | title =The Syrian Goddess | publisher = | year =1913 | location = | pages = | url =http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/index.htm | doi = | id = }}</ref>

== Harm to individuals ==
Many aspects of religion are criticized by skeptics on the basis that they are harmful to the individual believer. Skeptics cite such things as dogmatic adherence to irrational beliefs and practices (e.g. [[snake handling]], [[cult suicide]], [[Walking on water#Related death|walking on water]]), unnecessary restrictions on natural human behavior (e.g. [[teetotalism]], [[Religion and sexuality|sexual prohibitions]]) and the subsequent mental and emotional trauma of fear and guilt.

=== Child abuse ===
[[Image:Jonestown.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Aftermath of the 1978 [[Jonestown]] mass cult suicide that killed 914 people including 276 children and 40 babies]]
{{See also|Indoctrination|Brainwashing|Religion and children|Child marriage}}
Critics such as [[Christopher Hitchens]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] use the term "child abuse" to describe the harm that some religious upbringings inflict on children.<ref name="Richard Dawkins">{{Cite book | author=Richard Dawkins | title=The God Delusion | chapter=Childhood, abuse and the escape from religion}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author=Christopher Hitchens| title=god is not Great| chapter=Is Religion Child Abuse?}}</ref> They claim that children are especially vulnerable to mental harms related to religion, including:

* Terrorized by threats of punishment, such as eternal damnation in a fiery hell
* Extreme guilt about normal, healthy sexual functions
* Trained to disrespect science and reason
* Indoctrinated into a particular religious faith, thus depriving the child of the opportunity to make their own free inquiry later, when they are mature

Dawkins is angered by the term "Muslim child" or a "Catholic child". He asks how a young child can possibly be considered intellectually mature enough to have such independent views on the cosmos and humanity’s place within it. By contrast, Dawkins points out, no reasonable person would speak of a "[[Marxism|Marxist]] child" or a "[[Tory]] child."<ref name="Richard Dawkins"/>

Some religions, such as [[Islam]]<ref name="seyaj.org">{{cite web|title=Seyaj Organization for the Protection of Children. |url=http://seyaj.org/en/}}{{dead link|date=October 2009}}</ref> and [[Mormonism]]<ref name="Compton 1997">{{cite book| last=Compton
| first=Todd
| authorlink=Todd Compton
| title=[[In Sacred Loneliness: The Plural Wives of Joseph Smith]]
| publisher=[[Signature Books]]
| place=Salt Lake City, UT
| year=1997
| isbn=156085085X
}}</ref> have promoted marriage of older men to girls as young as 10 years of age. The Seyaj Organization for the Protection of Children describes cases of 10 year old girls being married and raped in Yemen, and a 12 year old girl dying in childbirth after marriage.<ref name="seyaj.org"/>
<ref>{{cite news|title = CNN article on 12 year old bride death|url=http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/09/14/yemen.childbirth.death/index.html}}</ref> [[Mormon]] founder [[Joseph Smith]] [[List of the wives of Joseph Smith, Jr.|married girls]] as young as 13 and 14<ref name="Compton 1997"/> and other early Mormon church members married girls as young as 10.<ref>{{cite book| last=Hirshon
| first=Stanley P.
| title=The Lion of the Lord
| publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]
| year=1969
}}</ref> The [[LDS]] branch of the Mormon faith has eliminated underaged marriages in the past century, but [[Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints|fundamentalist branches of Mormonism]] continue the practice.
[[Arthur Schopenhauer]], the [[pessimism#Pessimism by individual|pessimist]] philosopher, spoke of the subject in 19th century:
<blockquote>And as the capacity for believing is strongest in childhood, special care is taken to make sure of this tender age. This has much more to do with the doctrines of belief taking root than threats and reports of miracles. If, in early childhood, certain fundamental views and doctrines are paraded with unusual solemnity, and an air of the greatest earnestness never before visible in anything else; if, at the same time, the possibility of a doubt about them be completely passed over, or touched upon only to indicate that doubt is the first step to eternal perdition, the resulting impression will be so deep that, as a rule, that is, in almost every case, doubt about them will be almost as impossible as doubt about one's own existence.<ref>''On Religion: A Dialogue.''</ref></blockquote>

=== Inadequate medical care ===
[[Image:Saintfrancisborgia exorcism.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Saint Francis Borgia]] performing an [[exorcism]], by [[Goya]]]]
{{See also|Exorcism|Faith healing}}
Critics{{Who|date=November 2009}} say that some religions treat illness, both mental and physical, in a manner that does not heal, and in some cases exacerbates the problem. Specific examples include [[faith healing]] of certain Christian sects, the [[Christian Science]] religion which eschews medical care, and [[exorcisms]].<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Exorcism by Rabbis: Talmud Sages and Their Magic | work = | publisher =Bar-Ilan University, Israel | date = | url =http://faculty.biu.ac.il/~barilm/exorcism.html | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Papademetriou | first =George C | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Exorcism in the Orthodox Church | work = | publisher = | date = | url =http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7079.asp | doi = | accessdate = }}{{Dead link|date=October 2009}}</ref>

Faith based practices for healing purposes have come into direct conflict with both the medical profession and the law when victims of these practices are harmed, or in the most extreme cases, killed by these "cures."<ref>{{cite news| title=Exorcism priest is jailed for nun death|publisher=The Scotsman|author=Carmiola Ionescu|url=http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=271822007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=US boy dies during 'exorcism'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3179789.stm|publisher=BBC News | date=2003-08-25 | accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Exorcism bid turns fatal|publisher=The Hindu|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/01/05/stories/2005010512820300.htm}}</ref>
A detailed study in 1998 found 140 instances of deaths of children due to religion-based medical neglect. Most of these cases involved religious parents relying on prayer to cure the child's disease, and withholding medical care.<ref>{{Cite journal
| title=Child fatalities from religion-motivated medical neglect.
| journal =Pediatrics
| date = 1998-Apr; vol 101 (issue 4 Pt 1)
|pages =pp 625–9
| last=Asser
| first=S. M.
| year=1998
}}</ref>

=== Jerusalem syndrome ===
{{Main|Jerusalem syndrome}}
There are certain places with deep associations with religious feeling, often called places of [[pilgrimage]]. One of these is Jerusalem, which is revered by followers of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Jerusalem has lent its name to a unique psychological phenomenon where Jewish or Christian individuals who develop obsessive religious themed ideas or delusions (sometimes believing themselves to be Jesus Christ or another prophet) will feel compelled to travel to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jerusalem Syndrome: Jewish Virtual Library|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/jersynd.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jerusalem Syndrome|url=http://savvytraveler.publicradio.org/show/features/2000/20000603/jerusalem.shtml}}</ref>

During a period of 13 years (1980–1993) for which admissions to the [[Kfar Shaul Mental Health Centre]] in Jerusalem were analysed, it was reported<ref name="Bar-El">Bar-el Y, Durst R, Katz G, Zislin J, Strauss Z, Knobler HY. (2000) Jerusalem syndrome. ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]'', 176, 86-90. [http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/176/1/86 Full text]</ref> that 1,200 tourists with severe, Jerusalem-themed mental problems were referred to this clinic. Of these, 470 were admitted to hospital. On average, 100 such tourists have been seen annually, 40 of them requiring admission to hospital. About 2 million tourists visit Jerusalem each year. Kalian and Witztum note that as a proportion of the total numbers of tourists visiting the city, this is not significantly different from any other city.<ref name="Kalian2000">Kalian M, Witztum E. (2000) Comments on Jerusalem syndrome. ''[[British Journal of Psychiatry]]'', 176, 492. [http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/full/176/5/492-a Full text]</ref><ref name="Tannock">Tannock C, Turner T. (1995) Psychiatric tourism is overloading London beds. ''BMJ'' 1995;311:806 [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/311/7008/806?ijkey=99162912f1943a21abffad2d50be1a8406e8aefe&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha Full Text]</ref>

=== Guilt about normal sexual functions ===
{{See also|Religion and sexuality}}
{{Expand section|date=September 2009}}
Critics such as Hitchens assert that many religions view normal sexual activity (such as [[homosexuality]] or [[masturbation]]) as evil or immoral, and that this view can sometimes leads to [[neuroses]] or other ill effects.<ref>"god is not Great", Christopher Hitchens, 2007, Twelve, p. 205-217</ref>

[[Image:Codex Magliabechiano (141 cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Aztec]] [[human sacrifice]], from [[Codex Mendoza]], 16th century ([[Bodleian Library]], [[Oxford University|Oxford]].]]

=== Blood sacrifice ===
{{See also|Blood sacrifice|Human sacrifice}}
Hitchens claims that many religions endorse [[blood sacrifice]], wherein innocent victims are killed or harmed to appease deities.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hitchens|first=Christopher|title=god is not Great|date=2007|pages=205–217|chapter=12}}</ref> A prominent example is the [[Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|daily sacrifice of humans practiced by the Aztecs]].<ref>
{{cite book
| last = Duverger | first = Christian
| year = 2005
| title = La flor letal
| pages = 139–140
| publisher = Fondo de cultura económica
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
| last = Hassig | first = Ross
| year = 2003
| title = El sacrificio y las guerras floridas
| journal = [[Arqueología mexicana]]
| volume = XI | page = 47
}}</ref> The [[Old Testament]] includes sympathetic depictions as well as condemnations of human sacrifice.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

=== Genital mutilation ===
Hitchens claims that many religions endorse [[genital mutilation]], including [[circumcision]] and [[female circumcision]], and that these practices are immoral, unhealthy, and unnecessary.<ref>"god is not Great", Christopher Hitchens, 2007, Twelve, p. 223-226.</ref>

===Mental health versus mysticism and self-sacrifice===

[[Nathaniel Branden]], psychotherapist and writer, best known today for his work in the [[self-esteem|psychology of self-esteem]], and a one-time associate of novelist [[Ayn Rand]], writes in his essay ''Mental Health versus Mysticism and Self-Sacrifice'' about the harm religion causes to individuals. He adduces that the maintenance of his life and the achievement of self-esteem require of man the fullest exercise of his reason but he asserts that morality, men are taught, rests on and requires faith. Faith, he asserts, is the commitment of one’s consciousness to beliefs for which one has no sensory evidence or rational proof. When a man rejects reason as his standard of judgment, only one alternative standard remains to him: his feelings. A mystic is a man who treats his feelings as tools of cognition. Faith is the equation of feeling with knowledge. He concludes by claiming that if sacrifice is a virtue, it is not the neurotic but the rational man who must be "cured".<ref>Branden, N. (1963), "Mental Health versus Mysticism and Self-Sacrifice," Ayn Rand - The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism.</ref>

=== Counterarguments ===

Responding in the book ''[[The Irrational Atheist]]'' to criticisms that religion is harmful, [[Theodore Beale]] argues that religious individuals tend to be happier and healthier, more likely to have children, and more sexually satisfied than non-religious individuals.<ref name="Irrational Atheist">[[Theodore Beale]] writing under the pseudonym Vox Day, [[The Irrational Atheist]], Benbella Books (2008) ISBN 978-1933771366</ref> There is substantial research suggesting that religious people are [[Happiness|happier]] and less stressed.<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/happiness_formula/4783836.stm
| title = The science of happiness
| first = Mike
| last = Rudin
| date = 2006-04-30
| publisher = BBC
| accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015870,00.html
| title = The New Science of Happiness
| publisher = Time
}}</ref> Surveys by [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]], the [[National Opinion Research Center]] and the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Organization]] conclude that spiritually committed people are twice as likely to report being "very happy" than the least religiously committed people.<ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] p156, citing [[David Myers]] ''The Science of Subjective Well-Being'' Guilford Press 2007</ref> An analysis of over 200 social studies contends that "high religiousness predicts a rather lower risk of depression and drug abuse and fewer suicide attempts, and more reports of satisfaction with sex life and a sense of well-being,"<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Timothy
| coauthors = Michael McCullough, and Justin Poll
| year = 2003
| title = Religiousness and Depression: Evidence for a Main Effect and Moderating Influence of Stressful Life Events
| journal = Psychological Bulletin
| volume = 129
| issue = 4
| pages = 614–36
| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.614
| pmid = 12848223
}}</ref> and a review of 498 studies published in peer-reviewed journals concluded that a large majority of them showed a positive correlation between religious commitment and higher levels of perceived well-being and self-esteem and lower levels of [[hypertension]], depression, and clinical delinquency.<ref>Bryan Johnson & colleagues at the University of Pennsylvania (2002)</ref>{{Vague|date=November 2009}}<ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] cites similar results from the ''Handbook of Religion and Mental Health'' [[Harold Koenig]] (ed.) ISBN 978-0124176454</ref> Studies by [[Keith Ward]] show that overall religion is a positive contributor to mental health,<ref>[[Is Religion Dangerous?]] Ch 9.</ref> and a meta-analysis of 34 recent studies published between 1990 and 2001 also found that religiosity has a salutary relationship with psychological adjustment, being related to less psychological distress, more life satisfaction, and better [[self-actualization]].<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Hackney
| first = Charles H
| coauthors = Glenn S. Sanders
| year = 2003
| title = Religiosity and Mental Health: A Meta–Analysis of Recent Studies
| journal = Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion
| volume = 42
| issue = 1
| pages = 43–55
| doi = 10.1111/1468-5906.t01-1-00160
}}</ref> A 2009 working paper by Andrew E. Clark and Orsolya Lelkes based on surveys from 90,000 people in 26 European countries found that "[one's own] religious behaviour is positively correlated with individual life satisfaction." and furthermore that greater overall "religiosity" in a region also correlates positively with "individual life satisfaction" on both the religious and non-religious population. The reverse was also found to be true: a large "atheist" (non-religious) population "has negative spillover effects" for both the religious and non-religious members of the population.<ref>Clark, A. E., & Lelkes, O. (2009, January). Let us pray: religious interactions in life satisfaction. working paper no. 2009-01. Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques, Abstract retrieved July 2, 2009, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/pse/psecon/2009-01.html</ref> Finally, a recent systematic review of 850 research papers on the topic concluded that "the majority of well-conducted studies found that higher levels of religious involvement are positively associated with indicators of psychological well-being (life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and higher morale) and with less depression, suicidal thoughts and behavior, drug/alcohol use/abuse." <ref>{{cite journal
| last = Moreira-Almeida
| first = Alexander
| coauthors = Francisco Lotufo Neto, and [[Harold G. Koenig]]
| url = http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-44462006000300018&lng=en&nrm=iso
| title = Religiousness and mental health: a review
| journal = Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. [serial on the Internet]
| year = 2006
| month = September
| volume = 28
| issue = 3
| pages = 242–250
}}</ref>

However, as of 2001, most of those studies were conducted within the United States.<ref>[[Harold G. Koenig|Koenig HG]], McCullough M, Larson DB. [http://books.google.com/books?hl=pt-BR&lr=&id=h8F3OmblmH4C&oi=fnd&pg=PA17&dq=+Handbook+of+religion+and+health:+a+century+of+research+reviewed&ots=0kUQm-vaY_&sig=uGJV14M_rfxy_ZEowNKSNfK5XJ8#PPA18,M1 Handbook of religion and health: a century of research reviewed.] New York: Oxford University Press; 2001. Page 18</ref> According to a 2007 paper by Liesbeth Snoep in the Journal of Happiness Studies, there is no significant correlation between religiosity and individual happiness in Netherlands and Denmark, countries that have lower rates of religion than the United States.<ref>Liesbeth Snoep, [http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/650q541579041625/fulltext.html "Religiousness and happiness in three nations: a research note,"] ''Journal of Happiness Studies'', February 6, 2007</ref> Further, these studies do not differentiate between the non-religious and those who are atheist or agnostic.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} So while it may be that the larger group of non-religious as less satisfied, etc., than the religious, they do not define whether those who have a strong commitment to atheism are just as unsatisfied as those who are simply uncommitted.

== Harm to society ==
{{cquote2|Religion is an insult to human dignity. With or without it you would have good people doing good things and evil people doing evil things. But for good people to do evil things, that takes religion.|[[Steven Weinberg]]|{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}}}
[[Image:Islamist demonstration outside Danish Embassy in London in 2006.jpg|right|350px|thumb|Marchers hold signs expressing extremist sentiments outside the [[Islamist demonstration outside the Danish Embassy in London in 2006|Danish Embassy in London in 2006]]]]
Some aspects of religion are criticized on the basis that they damage society as a whole. Critics such as Bertrand Russell and Richard Dawkins cite religiously inspired or justified violence, resistance to social change, attacks on science, repression of women, and homophobia.<ref name="Russell">{{cite web |last=Russell |first=Bertrand
| url=http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell2.htm| title=''Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civilization?''| accessdate=2009-10-23}}</ref>

Most religions hold their teachings or revelations to be those that are the closest to the universal truths and those of other religions to be further from, or more often, in direct contradiction with these truths. Critics of this world-view{{Who|date=November 2009}} claim that this monopoly of universal truths leads, inevitably, to a very ingrained "us vs. them" group [[solidarity]] and mentality (often referred to as [[moral superiority]]) which, to a wide range of extents, dehumanise or [[Demonization|demonise]] individuals outside the particular faith as "not fully human", or in some way less worthy and less deserving of rights and regard. Results can, based on the fanaticism of this belief, vary from mild [[discrimination]] to outright [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal | last =Hartung | first =John | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Love Thy Neighbour, The Evolution of In-Group Morality | journal =Skeptic | volume =3 | issue =5 | pages = | year =1995 | url =http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/ltn01.html | doi = | id = | accessdate = }}</ref>

One wide-ranging study<ref name="http">{{cite web |url=http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2005/2005-11.html |title=Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies) |accessdate=2007-10-30 |work=}}</ref> has shown that there is a direct correlation between religiosity and societal dysfunction, including homicide, sexual disease, teenage pregnancy and marital problems. Data for this study was obtained from approximately 23,000 people in almost all (17) of the developed democracies. While the data was multi-national, further evidence of religion's effect on societal health was concluded from regional differences in the [[United States]]. According to paleontologist [[Gregory S. Paul]]:

<blockquote>There is evidence that within the U.S. strong disparities in religious belief versus acceptance of evolution are correlated with similarly varying rates of societal dysfunction, the strongly theistic, anti-evolution south and mid-west having markedly worse homicide, mortality, STD, youth pregnancy, marital and related problems than the northeast where societal conditions, secularization, and acceptance of evolution approach European norms. </blockquote>
An analysis published later in the same journal contends that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions to be taken from Paul's research.<ref name="moses.creighton.edu"/>
=== Holy war and religious terrorism ===
[[Image:Gustave dore crusades entry of the crusaders into constantinople.jpg|thumb|260px|right|Entry of the [[Crusaders]] into [[Constantinople]] by [[Gustave Doré]] (1832-1883)]]
{{Main|Religious war|Religious terrorism|Religious violence}}

Critics such as Hitchens and Dawkins say that religions do tremendous harm to society in three ways:<ref name="Hitchens 2007"/>{{page needed}}<ref name="Dawkins 2006"/>{{page needed}}

* Religions sometimes use war, violence, and terrorism to promote their religious goals
* Religious leaders contribute to secular wars and terrorism by endorsing or supporting the violence
* Religious fervor is exploited by secular leaders to support war and terrorism

Examples of religion-based wars include the [[Mideast conflict]] between [[Israel]] and neighboring Muslim countries, the [[Crusades]], [[The Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]], [[French Wars of Religion]], [[European wars of religion]], the [[Taiping Rebellion]], Islamic [[Jihad]], the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]], the [[Sri Lankan Civil War|Buddhist war against Tamils in Sri Lanka]], and [[Jewish-Roman Wars]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Examples of religion-based violence and terrorism include the [[Mormon]]-led [[Mountain Meadows massacre]], the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the [[26 November 2008 Mumbai attacks|Mumbai attacks of 2008]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|2005 London bombings]], and the [[Bali bombings]]. These attacks are carried out by those with very strong religious convictions. These acts of religious terrorism are seen by the terrorists as small skirmishes in the context of a much larger global religious war.<ref>[http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/11-24-2002-30919.asp Full text: bin Laden's 'letter to America'] accessed may 24, 2007</ref> Although the causes of terrorism are complex, it may be that terrorists are partially reassured by their religious views that God is on their side and will reward them in heaven for punishing unbelievers.<ref name=juerg /><ref name=chrjhd>[http://www.cbn.com/spirituallife/ChurchAndMinistry/ChurchHistory/Crusades_CanerChristianJihad0505.asp Christian Jihad: The Crusades and Killing in the Name of Christ]</ref>
[[Image:MMM-Harpersw8-13-1859.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mormon]]-led [[Mountain Meadows massacre]]]]
These conflicts are among the most difficult to resolve, particularly where both sides believe that God is on their side and has endorsed the moral righteousness of their claims.<ref name=juerg>{{cite book | last =Juergensmeyer | first =Mark | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence. Updated edition | publisher =University of California Press | date =2001-09-21 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref> One of the most [[infamous]] quotes associated with [[religious fanaticism]] was made in 1209 during the siege of [[Béziers]], a Crusader asked the Papal Legate [[Arnaud Amalric]] how to tell Catholics from [[Catharism|Cathar]]s when the city was taken, to which Amalric replied:
"''Tuez-les tous; Dieu reconnaitra les siens,''" or "Kill them all; God will recognize his."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.positiveatheism.org/mail/eml9442.htm |title=Kill Them All; For The Lord Knoweth Them That Are His Steve Locks (Reply) (9-00) |accessdate=2007-08-18 |work=}}</ref>

Theoretical physicist [[Michio Kaku]] considers [[religious terrorism]] as one of the main threats in man's evolution from a [[Kardashev scale|Type 0 to Type 1 civilization]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apexstuff.com/bt/200702/cover.asp |title=Cover Story - businesstoday - February 2007 |publisher=Apexstuff.com |date=1947-01-24 |accessdate=2009-10-24}}</ref>

===== Arguments against the harm of religous wars =====

Religious apologists{{Who|date=October 2009}} counter that blaming religion is based on a misinterpretation of the relevant religions' ethical rules and a combination of non-religious factors.<ref name="Kabbani">{{cite web | last =Kabbani | first =Hisham | authorlink = | coauthors =Seraj Hendricks, Ahmad Hendricks | title =Jihad&nbsp;— A Misunderstood Concept from Islam | work = | publisher = | date = | url =http://www.sunnah.org/fiqh/jihad_judicial_ruling.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name="Islam pp.93">[[John Esposito]](2005), Islam: The Straight Path, pp.93</ref><ref name="Pape 2005">{{cite book |last= Pape|first= Robert|authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Dying to Win: The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism |year=2005 |publisher= Random House|location= New York, NY|isbn=1-4000-6317-5 }}</ref> Some{{Who|date=October 2009}} argue that religious violence is mostly caused by misinterpretations of the relevant religions' ethical rules and a combination of non-religious factors.<ref name="Kabbani"/><ref name="Islam pp.93"/><ref name="Pape 2005"/> [[Robert Pape]] argues that the news reports about [[suicide attack]]s are profoundly misleading: "There is little connection between [[suicide terrorism]] and [[Islamic fundamentalism]], or any one of the world's religions". After studying 315 suicide attacks carried out over the last two decades, he concludes that suicide bombers' actions stem from political conflict, not religion.<ref name="Pape 2005"/> [[Michael A. Sheehan]] argues that many terrorist groups use religious and cultural terms to conceal political goals and gain popular support.<ref>Falk Auditorium The Brookings Institution 1775 Massachusetts Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20036. "A Foreign Policy Event Terrorism: The Current Threat" Thursday, February 10, 2000. http://www.brookings.edu/events/2000/0210terrorism.aspx</ref> Terry Nardin suggests that religious terrorism does not differ in "character and causes, from [[political terrorism]]."<ref>{{cite journal|title=Review of Terror in the Mind of God|author=Terry Nardin|journal=The Journal of Politics|volume=64|issue=2|month=May|year=2001|publisher=Southern Political Science Association|pages=683–684}}</ref> [[Mark Juergensmeyer]] argues that religion "does not ordinarily lead to violence.That happens only with the coalescence of a peculiar set of circumstances - political, social, and ideological - when religion becomes fused with violent expressions of social aspirations, personal pride, and movements for political change."<ref name="mind">{{cite book|title=Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence|author=[[Mark Juergensmeyer]]|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=0520240111|year=2004}}</ref>{{Rp|10}} and that the use of the term "terrorist" depends on whether or not the speaker believes the acts involved are warranted.<ref name="mind"/>{{Rp|9}} [[H. Allen Orr]] attributed many of the historical religious violent activities to the secular and political roles that were performed by the church in the past and noted that the recent absence of religion among the government of modern communist nations did not lead to [[Mao]], [[Pol Pot]], or [[Stalin]] leading any less violently.<ref>Orr, H. Allen. ''Gould on God'' 1999. http://bostonreview.net/BR24.5/orr.html accessed 24 January 2009</ref>

Critic [[Christopher Hitchens]] responds to these rebuttals: "it is interesting to find that people of faith now seek defensively to say that they are no worse than fascists or Nazis or Stalinists".<ref>"god is not Great", Christopher Hitchens, 2007, Twelve, p. 230</ref>

=== Suppression of scientific progress ===
[[Image:Galileo facing the Roman Inquisition.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Galileo]] facing the Roman [[Inquisition]]]]
Critics{{Who|date=October 2009}} argue that when a religion offers a complete set of answers to the problems of [[purpose]], [[morality]], [[origin]]s, or [[science]], it often discourages exploration of those areas by suppressing curiosity, denies its followers a broader perspective, and can prevent social, moral and scientific progress. Examples of scientific suppression by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] include the [[Galileo affair|trial of Galileo]] for suggesting that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and the execution of scientist and philosopher [[Giordano Bruno]].

In more recent time, many debates have arisen that follow a pattern of [[faith and rationality|faith versus reason]], in particular the rise of [[fundamentalist]] and [[biblical literalism|bible literalist]] opposition to science and [[liberal democracy]].{{Or|date=July 2009}} Examples include the [[creation-evolution controversy]], and controversies over the use of [[birth control]], the [[separation of church and state]], opposition to research into [[embryonic stem cell]]s, or theological objections to [[vaccination]] and [[anesthesia]].<ref name=berlet1998>Chip Berlet, "Following the Threads," in Ansell, Amy E. ''Unraveling the Right: The New Conservatism in American Thought and Politics'', pp. 24, Westview Press, 1998, ISBN 0-813-33147-1 <br /></ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html|title=Humanae Vitae: Encyclical of Pope Paul VI on the Regulation of Birth, July 25, 1968| accessdate = 2006-10-01|publisher=The Vatican}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title =MPs turn attack back on Cardinal Pell | work = | pages = | language = | publisher =Sydney Morning Herald | date =2007-06-06 | url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/MPs-turn-attack-back-on-Cardinal-Pell/2007/06/06/1181089126575.html | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name=bbcjuly2001>{{cite news| last = | first = | coauthors = | title =Pope warns Bush on stem cells | work = | pages = | language = | publisher =BBC News | date =2001-07-23 | url =http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1452314.stm | accessdate = }}</ref><ref name=white>{{cite book | last =Andrew Dickson | first =White | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom | publisher = | year =1898 | location = | url =http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/whitem10.html | doi = | id =| page =X. Theological Opposition to Inoculation, Vaccination, and the Use of Anaesthetics }}</ref>

During the 19th century what scholars today call the historical [[conflict thesis]] developed. According to this model, any interaction between [[religion]] and [[science]] must inevitably lead to open hostility, with religion usually taking the part of the aggressor against new scientific ideas.<ref>David B. Wilson writes about the development of the conflict thesis in "The Historiography of Science and Religion" the second essay in "Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0."</ref>

Some historians of science{{Who|date=October 2009}} consider the "religion vs. science" concept an oversimplification, and prefer to take a more nuanced view of the subject.<ref>Quotation from Ferngren's introduction at "Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0.":<br />"''...while [John] Brooke's view [of a complexity thesis rather than conflict thesis] has gained widespread acceptance among professional historians of science, the traditional view remains strong elsewhere, not least in the popular mind.''" (p. x)</ref><ref>Quotation from Colin A. Russell in "The Conflict Thesis" the first essay of "Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0.":<br />"''The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is perceived by some historians as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.''"</ref> These historians cite, for example, the [[Galileo affair]] and the [[Scopes trial]], and assert that these were not purely instances of conflict between science and religion; personal and political factors also weighed heavily in the development of each.<ref>On the Galileo affair, see: Blackwell, Richard J., "Galileo Galilei" in ''Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction''.
On the Scopes trial, see: Larson, Edward J. ''Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Battle over Science and Religion''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1997.</ref> In addition, some historians contend that religious organizations figure prominently in the broader histories of many sciences, with many of the scientific minds until the professionalization of scientific enterprise (in the 19th century) being clergy and other religious thinkers.<ref>See, for example, the chapters on "Geology and Paleontology" (by Nicolaas A. Rupke), "Natural History" (by Peter M. Hess), and "Charles Darwin" (by James Moore) in Gary Ferngren (ed.), ''Science and Religion: A Historical Introduction''.</ref> Some historians contend that many scientific developments, such as [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's laws]] and the 19th century reformulation of physics in terms of [[energy]], were explicitly driven by religious ideas.<ref>On Kepler, see: Barker, Peter and Bernard R. Goldstein. "Theological Foundations of Kepler's Astronomy". ''Osiris'', Volume 16: ''Science in Theistic Contexts.'' University of Chicago Press, 2001, pp 88–113.On energy physics, see: Smith, Crosbie. ''The Science of Energy: A Cultural History of Energy Physics in Victorian Britain''. London: The Athlone PRess, 1998.</ref>

=== Suppression of art and literature ===
[[Image:Imam Khomeini - has exiled.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Ayatollah Khomeini]] issued the [[fatwa]] against [[Salman Rushdie]]]]
[[File:BigBuddha.jpg|150px|left|thumb|Former site of one of the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]]]]
Critics{{Who|date=November 2009}} claim that some religions{{Which?|date=November 2009}} destroy important artistic works and cultural artifacts. Islam, especially, is criticized for dynamiting the [[Buddhas of Bamyan]] in 2001.

Critics{{Who|date=October 2009}} have asserted repression of literature and the press by the Muslim faith, citing examples such as: In 1989, Muslim religious leader [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] issued a [[The Satanic Verses controversy|religious edict]] condemning author [[Salman Rushdie]] to death for the publication of the book [[The Satanic Verses]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In 2005, many Muslims [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|protested against]] the publication of cartoons depicting [[Mohammad]].

Muslims in [[Bangladesh]] issued a [[fatwa]] (religious decree) calling for the death of poet and author [[Taslima Nasrin]] because of the women's rights issues raised in her books, particularly her novel ''Lajja''.<ref>{{cite news
| last = Hossain
| first = Rakeeb
| coauthors =
| title = Fatwa offers unlimited money to kill Taslima
| work = [[Hindustan Times]]
| place =
| pages =
| language =
| publisher =
| date = 2007-08-18
| url = http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=5d562b17-64dc-4a90-8396-7cfcaea2d568&ParentID=ea13ac8f-a3d8-45a2-9eba-b56c9b73e87b&&Headline=Kolkata%27s+clerics+threaten+Taslima
| accessdate = 2009-05-31}}</ref>

=== Morality ===
{{See also|Religious intolerance|Human sacrifice|Honor killing}}
{{cquote2|A man's ethical behavior should be based effectually on sympathy, education, and social ties; no religious basis is necessary. Man would indeed be in a poor way if he had to be restrained by fear of punishment and hope of reward after death.|[[Albert Einstein]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Religion and Science|last=Einstein|first=Albert|work=New York Times Magazine|date=1930-11-09|accessdate=2009-12-17|newspaper=New York Times Magazine}}</ref>}}
[[Shirin Ebadi|Dr. Shirin Ebadi]] has criticized dogmatic [[Islam]] as morally deficient, arguing that it elevates to [[morality|moral]] status many ancient and ill-informed rules that may have been designed for reasons of [[hygiene]], politics, or other reasons in a bygone era.<ref>Nobel Peace Laureate, Muslim and human rights activist [[Shirin Ebadi|Dr Shirin Ebadi]] has spoken out against undemocratic Islamic countries justifying "oppressive acts" in the name of Islam. Speaking at the Earth Dialogues 2006 conference in Brisbane, Dr Ebadi said her native Iran as well as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Yemen "among others" were guilty of human rights violations. "In these countries, Islamic rulers want to solve 21st century issues with laws belonging to 14 centuries ago," she said. "Their views of human rights are exactly the same as it was 1400 years ago."</ref>{{Verify source|date=October 2008}}<!--What we have in this reference looks like it's all dealing with the application of sharia in conservative Muslim states, rather than a more general analysis of all "dogmatic religions."--> An example of this would be the idea that women and men must be kept separate, or that women who do not cover themselves up modestly have tendencies for immorality, or are in some way responsible for sexual assault.<ref>{{cite news | last =Kerbaj | first =Richard | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Muslim leader blames women for sex attacks | publisher =The Australian | date =2006-10-26 | location = | pages = | url =http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,20646437-601,00.html }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Women Asked to Leave Seminar|author=Raid Qusti | url=http://arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=89107&d=22&m=11&y=2006}}</ref>

Dawkins contends that theistic religions devalue human [[compassion]] and morality. In his view, the Bible contains many injunctions against following one's conscience over scripture, and positive actions are supposed to originate not from compassion, but from the [[fear]] of punishment.<ref name=dawkins2006 />
Religious institutions typically declare they have special knowledge of [[moral absolutism|absolute morality]] and invoke this in order to hinder debates on many issues such as [[stem cell|stem cell research]], [[euthanasia]] and [[same-sex marriage]].<ref name=bbcjuly2001 /><ref>{{cite news | last = | first = | coauthors = | title =Vatican drive to curb gay marriage | work = | pages = | language =BBC News | publisher = | date =2003-07-31 | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3108349.stm | accessdate = | accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

==== Treatment of homosexuals ====
[[Image:20051129 northlake-il5.jpg|frame|A [[Westboro Baptist Church]] picket in Northlake, IL on November 29, 2005]]
{{Main|Homosexuality and religion}}
{{cquote2|If a man also lie with mankind, as he lieth with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death; their blood shall be upon them.|[[Leviticus]] 20:13<nowiki>|</nowiki>[[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]]}}

Many [[major religions]], most prominently traditional [[Christianity and homosexuality|Christianity]], [[Homosexuality and Islam|Islam]], [[Homosexuality and Hinduism|Hinduism]] and [[Homosexuality and Judaism|Orthodox Judaism]], consider [[homosexuality]] immoral. Singer Sir [[Elton John]] said organized religion promotes the [[Homophobia|hatred of homosexuals]]: "I think religion has always tried to turn hatred towards gay people... Organized religion does not seem to work. It turns people into really hateful [[lemming]]s and it's not really compassionate.''"<ref>{{Cite news | title=When Elton met Jake | url=http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,,1942193,00.html | work=[[The Observer]]}}</ref>

In the United States, conservative Christian groups such as the [[Christian Legal Society]] and the [[Alliance Defense Fund]] have filed numerous lawsuits against public universities, aimed at overturning policies that protect homosexuals from discrimination and [[hate speech]]. These groups argue that such policies infringe their right to freely exercise religion as guaranteed by the [[Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment]] of the [[United States Constitution]].<ref>{{cite news | last=Simon | first=Stephanie | coauthors= | title=Christians Sue for Right Not to Tolerate Policies | work= | pages= | language= | publisher=Los Angeles Times | date=2006-04-10 | url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/1018310011.html?dids=1018310011:1018310011&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Apr+10%2C+2006&author=Stephanie+Simon&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=A.1&desc=Christians+Sue+for+Right+Not+to+Tolerate+Policies
|accessdate= }}</ref>

Homosexuality is illegal in most Muslim countries, and in many of these countries carries the death penalty. In July 2005, [[Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni|two Iranian men]], aged sixteen and eighteen, were publicly hanged for homosexuality, causing an international outcry. Human rights organisations estimate that hundreds of people have been executed for homosexuality by Iranian authorities since the [[Iranian Revolution|1979 revolution]].<ref>{{cite news | last=Eke | first=Steven | coauthors = | title=Iran 'must stop youth executions' | wor = | pages= | language= | publisher=BBC News | date=2005-07-28 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4725959.stm | accessdate= | accessdate=2010-01-02}}</ref>

However, many liberal religious groups, and particularly most New Age religions, are accepting of homosexuals and do not regard their behavior as sinful, in particular: [[Homosexuality and religion#Judaism|Progressive Judaism]], [[Homosexuality and religion#Neopagan religion|Neopaganism]], [[Homosexuality and Wicca|Wicca]], [[Raelism#Sexual activity|Raëlism]], the [[United Church of Canada#Other|United Church of Canada]], the [[Anglican Church of Canada]],<ref name="Christianity and homosexuality">[[Christianity and homosexuality]]</ref> the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America#Homosexuality|Episcopal Church]], the [[Open and affirming|United Church of Christ]], [[Moravian Church]],<ref name="Christianity and homosexuality"/> [[Homosexuality and Voodoo|Haitian Voodoo]], [[Homosexuality and Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalism]], and the [[Metropolitan Community Church]], which was established almost specifically for this purpose.

==== Racial injustice ====
[[Image:Burning-cross2.jpg|thumb|right||Cross often used by [[Ku Klux Klan]] to intimidate minorities]]
{{See also|Black people and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}
Religion has been used by some as justification for advocating [[racism]]. The [[Ku Klux Klan]], [[Christian Identity]] movement, [[Mormon]] leaders, and some Post-Medieval [[Theology|Theologians]] have made claims that white people are closer to God than other races. Religious terrorist organizations such as the forenamed Ku Klux Klan, [[Kach and Kahane Chai]] and others also hold ostensibly racist views.<ref>{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Foreign Terrorist Organizations | work = | publisher =Office of Counterterrorism | date =2005-10-11 | url =http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/37191.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Berlet |first = Chip |authorlink = Chip Berlet |year = 2004 |url = http://www.publiceye.org/rightist/idennlns.html |title = A New Face for Racism & Fascism |work = White Supremacist, Antisemitic, and Race Hate Groups in the U.S.: A Geneaology |publisher = Political Research Associates |accessdate = 2007-02-18}}</ref> The [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormon church]] [[Black people and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|excluded blacks]] from all significant activity in the church, from 1860 to 1978.<ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}</ref>

On the other hand, many Christians have made efforts toward establishing racial equality, contributing to the [[Civil Rights Movement]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title =Civil Rights Movement in the United States | work=MSN Encyclopedia Encarta | url =http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580647_2/Civil_Rights_Movement_in_the_United_States.html | publisher= Microsoft | accessdate =2007-01-03 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257023158759408|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> ''The African American Review'' notes the important role Christian [[revivalism]] in the [[black church]] played in the Civil Rights Movement.<ref>{{cite web | title =Religious Revivalism in the Civil Rights Movement | work=African American Review | url =http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2838/is_4_36/ai_97515888 | date= Winter, 2002 | accessdate =2007-01-03 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], an ordained [[Baptist]] minister, was a leader of the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] and president of the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]], a Christian Civil Rights organization.<ref>{{cite web | title =Martin Luther King: The Nobel Peace Prize 1964 | publisher =The Nobel Foundation | url =http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-bio.html | accessdate = 2006-01-03 }}</ref>

==== Treatment of women ====
[[File:Wickiana5.jpg|thumb|220px|Burning of three witches in [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]], Switzerland (1585), by [[Johann Jakob Wick]]]]
{{See also|Role of women in religion|Misogyny}}
Critics{{Who|date=November 2009}} say that religions often treat women in a discriminatory fashion, given them status inferior to men, depriving them of opportunities, endorsing excessive punishments, and using torture and executions as a manner of subjugating them.

An example of such criticism is the treatment of women in modern [[Islam]], such as the required wearing of a [[burqa]] in some sects, or denying women permission to drive cars.

Critics {{Who|date=November 2009}} also say that Islam authorizes [[gang rape]] of female relatives, as punishment for crimes committed by male family members. Critics cite a Saudi Arabian case, where a rape victim was sentenced to receive 90 lashes because she was in a car with a man that was not her relative.<ref>{{cite web|title=Newspaper article on rape vicitm|url=http://www.news24.com/Content/World/News/1073/1a77b84a4491420e9e0cd45cba11cb4f/15-11-2007-02-08/Rape_victim_gets_200_lashes}}</ref>
Critics {{Who|date=November 2009}} also say that religion is used to justify female [[genital mutilation]], when in fact the actual purpose is to deprive the women of sexual satisfaction and discourage adultery.

Another example is the use of [[witch trials]] by the [[Christian]] churches from 400 A.D. though 1800 A.D. These trials, often resulting in torture or death of the alleged witch, were based on the Old Testament in the [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 22:18, which prescribes "thou shalt not suffer a witch to live". Critics say that these trials were unfair, and that [[witchcraft]] was often not in evidence, and that the trials were generally used to punish assertive or independent women, such as [[midwives]], [[free-thinkers]], or [[activists]].

==== Cruelty to animals ====
Critics such as [[PETA]] have criticised the Jewish faith for the pain inflicted to living animals when slaughtered with Jewish [[kosher]] and Islamic [[halal|kushrat]] techniques.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.peta.org/archives/kosher_meat/ |title=The PETA Files: kosher meatArchives |publisher=Blog.peta.org |date= |accessdate=2009-10-24}}</ref>

==== Arguments against religion promoting immoral behavior ====

Some scientific studies show that the degree of religiosity is generally found to be associated with higher ethical attitudes<ref>{{cite journal |author=Conroy, S.J. and Emerson, T.L.N. |title=Business Ethics and Religion: Religiosity as a Predictor of Ethical Awareness Among Students] | journal=Journal of Business Ethics |year=2004 | volume=50 | number=4 |pages=383–396 | doi = 10.1023/B:BUSI.0000025040.41263.09}}</ref><ref name="KERLEY, KENT R. 2005"/><ref name="SAROGLOU, VASSILIS 2005">{{cite journal|date=2005|title=Prosocial Behavior and Religion: New Evidence Based on Projective Measures and Peer Ratings|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|volume=44|issue=3|pages=323–348|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00289.x|last1=Saroglou |first1=Vassilis |last2=Pichon |first2=Isabelle |last3=Trompette |first3=Laurence |last4=Verschueren |first4=Marijke |last5=Dernelle |first5=Rebecca
}}</ref><ref name="Regnerus, Mark D. 2006">{{cite journal|date=2006|title=Religious Change and Adolescent Family Dynamics|journal=The Sociological Quarterly|volume=47|issue=1|pages=175–194|doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2006.00042.x|last1=Regnerus |first1=Mark D. |last2=Burdette |first2=Amy}}</ref> — for example, surveys suggesting a positive connection between faith and altruism.<ref>e.g. [http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/data/datasets/social_capital_community_survey.html a survey] by [[Robert D. Putnam|Robert Putnam]] showing that membership of religious groups was positively correlated with membership of voluntary organizations</ref> Although a recent study by [[Gregory S. Paul]] published in the ''Journal of Religion and Society'' argues for a positive [[correlation]] between the degree of ''public religiosity'' in a society and certain measures of dysfunction,<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2005/2005-11.html| journal=Journal of Religion and Society|title=Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look|first=Gregory S.|last=Paul |location=Baltimore, Maryland|year=2005| volume=7}}</ref> an analysis published later in the same journal contends that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions to be taken from the research.<ref name="moses.creighton.edu"/>

Survey research suggests that believers do tend to hold different views than non-believers on a variety of social, ethical and moral questions. According to a 2003 survey conducted in the United States by [[The Barna Group]], a Christian-affiliated research organization, those who described themselves as believers were less likely than those describing themselves as atheists or agnostics to consider the following behaviors morally acceptable: [[cohabitation|cohabitating]] with someone of the opposite sex outside of marriage, enjoying sexual fantasies, having an [[abortion]], sexual relationships outside of marriage, [[gambling]], looking at pictures of nudity or explicit sexual behavior, getting [[drunkeness|drunk]], and "[[homosexuality|having a sexual relationship with someone of the same sex]]."<ref name="Morality Continues to Decay">[http://web.archive.org/web/20040203202833/www.barna.org/cgi-bin/PagePressRelease.asp?PressReleaseID=152&Reference=F "The Barna Update: Morality Continues to Decay" (archive copy at the [[Internet Archive]])], [[The Barna Group]], November 3, 2003 ([http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/5-barna-update/129-morality-continues-to-decay "The Barna Update: Morality Continues to Decay" - Summary version posted on the Barna website])</ref>

=== Arguments against religion harming society ===
Religious apologists often respond that those guilty of such actions are merely misguided [[extremists]] and don't represent mainstream religion, or that such things are only exceptions and that, by and large, religion is a positive civilizing influence on society.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} Atheists such as [[Hector Avalos]] counter that this may be a [[No true Scotsman]] [[logical fallacy|fallacy]] in that apologists may decide which believers are considered "mainstream" and which are "extremist" on a basis that favors their position.<ref>Austin Cline, [http://atheism.about.com/od/religiousviolencemyths/a/HijackReligion.htm "Myth: Religious Extremists Hijack True Religion, Give Religion a Bad Name,"] [[About.com]] . Retrieved February 2, 2009.</ref>

In response to an article that correlates religion with dysfunctional behaviors,<ref name="http"/> an analysis published later in the same journal contends that a number of methodological problems undermine any findings or conclusions to be taken from the research.<ref name="moses.creighton.edu">{{cite journal|url=http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2006/2006-1.html| journal=Journal of Religion and Society|title=Religiosity, Secularism, and Social Health|author=Gerson Moreno-Riaño| coauthors=Mark Caleb Smith, Thomas Mach|location=Cedarville University|year=2006| volume=8}}</ref> In the same issue, Gary Jensen builds on and refines Paul's study.<ref name="Jensen">Gary F. Jensen (2006) Department of Sociology, Vanderbilt University ''Religious Cosmologies and Homicide Rates among Nations: A Closer Look'' http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/2006/2006-7.html http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/2006-7.pdf Journal of Religion and Society, Volume 8, ISSN 1522-5658 http://purl.org/JRS</ref> His conclusion, after carrying out elaborate multivariate statistical studies, is that a complex relationship exists between religiosity and homicide with some dimensions of religiosity encouraging homicide and other dimensions discouraging it." Meanwhile, other studies seem to show positive links in the relationship between religiosity and moral behavior<ref name="KERLEY, KENT R. 2005">KERLEY, KENT R., MATTHEWS, TODD L. & BLANCHARD, TROY C. (2005) Religiosity, Religious Participation, and Negative Prison Behaviors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion '''44''' (4), 443-457. {{doi|10.1111/j.1468-5906.2005.00296.x}}</ref><ref name="SAROGLOU, VASSILIS 2005"/><ref name="Regnerus, Mark D. 2006"/> — for example, surveys suggesting a positive connection between faith and altruism.<ref>eg [http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/data/datasets/social_capital_community_survey.html a survey] by [[Robert D. Putnam|Robert Putnam]] showing that membership of religious groups was positively correlated with membership of voluntary organisations</ref> Modern research in [[Relationship between criminology and sociology of education|criminology]] also acknowledges an ''inverse'' relationship between religion and crime,<ref>As is stated in: Doris C. Chu (2007). Religiosity and Desistance From Drug Use. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 2007; 34; 661 originally published online Mar 7, 2007; DOI: 10.1177/0093854806293485</ref> with many studies establishing this beneficial connection (though some{{Who|date=November 2009}} say it is a modest one).<ref>
For example:

* Albrecht, S. I., Chadwick, B. A., & Alcorn, D. S. (1977). Religiosity and deviance:Application of an attitude-behavior contingent consistency model. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 16, 263-274.
* Burkett, S.,& White, M. (1974). Hellfire and delinquency:Another look. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion,13,455-462.
* Chard-Wierschem, D. (1998). In pursuit of the "true" relationship: A longitudinal study of the effects of religiosity on delinquency and substance abuse. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Dissertation.
* Cochran, J. K.,& Akers, R. L. (1989). Beyond hellfire:An explanation of the variable effects of religiosity on adolescent marijuana and alcohol use. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 26, 198-225.
* Evans, T. D.,Cullen, F. T.,Burton, V. S.,Jr.,Dunaway, R. G.,Payne, G. L.,& Kethineni, S. R. (1996). Religion, social bonds, and delinquency. Deviant Behavior, 17, 43-70.
* Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J., & Cochran, J. K. (1991). "Render unto Caesar what is Caesar's": Religiosity and taxpayer’s inclinations to cheat. The Sociological Quarterly, 32, 251-266.
* Higgins, P. C., & Albrecht, G. L. (1977). Hellfire and delinquency revisited. Social Forces, 55, 952-958.
* Johnson, B. R.,Larson, D. B.,DeLi,S.,& Jang, S. J. (2000). Escaping from the crime of inner cities:Church attendance and religious salience among disadvantaged youth. Justice Quarterly, 17, 377-391.
* Johnson, R. E., Marcos, A. C., & Bahr, S. J. (1987). The role of peers in the complex etiology of adolescent drug use. Criminology, 25, 323-340.
* Powell, K. (1997). Correlates of violent and nonviolent behavior among vulnerable inner-city youths. Family and Community Health, 20, 38-47.

</ref> Indeed, a meta-analysis of 60 studies on religion and crime concluded, "religious behaviors and beliefs exert a moderate deterrent effect on individuals' criminal behavior".<ref>Baier, C. J.,& Wright, B. R. (2001). "If you love me, keep my commandments":A meta-analysis of the effect of religion on crime. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency,38,3-21.</ref>

[[Theodore Beale]] responds to criticisms that religion harms society by arguing that religious individuals tend to be more generous and more likely to have children.<ref name="Irrational Atheist"/> Religious belief appears to be the strongest predictor of charitable giving.<ref>Arthur C. Brooks, [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3647/is_200310/ai_n9340592/?tag=content;col1 "Religious faith and charitable giving,"] [[Policy Review]], Oct-Dec 2003</ref><ref>George F. Will, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/26/AR2008032602916.html?hpid=opinionsbox1 "Bleeding Hearts but Tight Fists,"] [[The Washington Post]], March 27, 2008; Page A17</ref><ref name="Gose 2006">Ben Gose, [http://www.philanthropy.com/free/articles/v19/i04/04001101.htm "Charity's Political Divide,"] [[The Chronicle of Philanthropy]], November 23, 2006</ref><ref>Arthur C. Brooks, Who Really Cares: The Surprising Truth about Compassionate Conservatism, Basic Books, November 27, 2006, ISBN 0465008216</ref><ref>Stossel, John and Kendall, Kristina [http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Story?id=2682730&page=2 "Who Gives and Who Doesn't? Putting the Stereotypes to the Test"] ABC News, November 28, 2006</ref> One study found that average charitable giving in 2000 by religious individuals ($2,210) was over three times that of secular individuals ($642). Giving to non-religious charities by religious individuals was $88 higher. Religious individuals are also more likely to volunteer time, donate blood, and give back money when accidentally given too much change.<ref name="Gose 2006"/> A 2007 study by [[The Barna Group]] found that "active-faith" individuals gave on average $1,500 in 2006, while "no-faith" individuals gave on average $200. "Active-faith" adults gave twice as much to non-church-related charities as "no-faith" individuals. They were also more likely to register vote, volunteer, personally help some who is homeless, and to describe themselves as "active in the community."<ref>[http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/12-faithspirituality/102-atheists-and-agnostics-take-aim-at-christians "Atheists and Agnostics Take Aim at Christians,"] The Barna Update, [[The Barna Group]], June 11, 2007</ref>

== Corrupt purposes of leaders ==
Many criticisms of religion focus on the purposes of the leaders of the religions, rather than on the religious doctrines. Critics point out that many religions endow their leaders with immoral or corrupt authority, and that leaders often abuse the power for financial gain, or increased access to sexual partners, or to oppress minorities or enemies. Critics claim that religious leaders have often supported un-democratic and oppressive power structures, such as the absolutist monarchies of Europe, or the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt {{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}.

==== Corrupt or immoral leaders ====
[[Image:In memoriam brigham young 2.jpg|thumb|right|Caricature of [[Mormon]] leader [[Brigham Young|Brigham Young's]] wives]]
Critics{{Who|date=November 2009}} point out that several religions were founded by individuals who appeared to be using the religion for immoral or corrupt purposes, such as financial gain, access to power, or justifying multiple wives. Examples given by critics include Indian mystic [[Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh]] who owned 90 [[Rolls-Royce (car)|Rolls Royce]] cars, cult leader [[David Koresh]], and [[Mormon]] leaders [[Joseph Smith]] who had about 27 wives and [[Brigham Young]] who had about 57 wives.<ref>"god is not Great", Christopher Hitchens, 2007, Twelve, p. 155-169</ref> [[Roman Catholic]] pope [[Alexander VI]] (of the [[House of Borgia|Borgia family]]) was noted for his many mistresses, [[syphilis]] and [[nepotism]]. [[Evangelical Christian]] pastor [[Jim Bakker]] was convicted of fraud for improperly using large amounts of money from his congregation for personal use.

==== Authoritarian political power ====
{{See also|Theocracy|Censorship by religion}}
The term "[[authoritarian]]" is used to describe an organization, an institution, or a state that enforces strong and sometimes oppressive measures against those within its sphere of influence, generally without any attempt at gaining their consent and often not allowing criticism of its policies.

In this sense, some religions can be seen as authoritarian, insofar as their goal is to define themselves as the ultimate authority by which the law of the land is granted. As this divine source of authority is not to be criticised by non-religious arguments, it is the antithesis to [[secularism]]. A country where the above has been achieved is called a [[theocracy]].<ref>{{cite web | last =Driscoll | first =James F. | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =The Catholic Encyclopedia - Theocracy | work = | publisher =New Advent | date = | url =http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14568a.htm | doi = | accessdate = }}</ref>

Some religions also teach that there was, or is, a human with divinity or touched by divine guidance, and who is therefore infallible: for example [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and, in certain circumstances, the [[Pope]].

==== Divine mandate used for political gain ====
{{See also|Imperial cult}}
The [[ancient egypt]]ians believed that upon taking the throne, the [[pharaoh]] became the earthly embodiment of a god. They believed that in his role as both man and god, he was responsible for preserving not only the empire, but the universe itself.<ref>{{cite book |author=Regine Schulz |title=Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs |publisher=Könemann |location=Köln |year= 1998|pages= |isbn=3-89508-913-3 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref>

Until the end of [[World War II]] the [[Emperor of Japan]] held a similar status,<ref>Large, Stephen S.; Emperor Hirohito and Showa Japan: A Political Biography, p. 60; Routledge, 1992.</ref> and [[deification]] of Roman emperors was common practice following the reign of [[Augustus]].<ref>{{cite web|title= The imperial cult|author=Dr Nigel Pollard|publisher=BBC History|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/roman_religion_gallery_06.shtml}}</ref> Systems such as this equated political opposition to heresy, and served to support existing power structures by suppressing dissent. On New Year's Day 1946, [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] (formally) declined claims of divinity with the declaration [[Ningen-sengen]].

==== Dominionism ====
{{Main|Dominionism}}
{{See also|Dominion Theology|Christian Reconstructionism}}
The term "dominionism" is often used to describe a political movement among [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christians]]. Critics view [[dominionism]] as an attempt to improperly impose Christianity as the national faith of the United States. It emerged in the late 1980s inspired by the book, film and lecture series, "Whatever Happened to the Human Race?" by [[Francis Schaeffer|Francis A. Schaeffer]] and [[C. Everett Koop]].<ref>{{cite book | last =Diamond | first =Sara | authorlink =Sara Diamond | coauthors = | title =Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right | publisher =South End Press | year =1989 | location =Boston | pages = | url = | doi = | id = }}</ref> Schaeffer's views influenced conservatives like [[Jerry Falwell]], [[Tim LaHaye]], [[Rutherford Institute|John W. Whitehead]], and although they represent different theological and political ideas, dominionists believe they have a Christian duty to take "control of a sinful secular society", either by putting fundamentalist Christians in office, or by introducing biblical law into the secular sphere.<ref>{{cite book | last =Ansell | first=Amy E | authorlink = | coauthors = | title =Unraveling the Right: The New Conservatism in American Thought and Politics | publisher =Westview Press | year =1998 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | isbn=0-813-33147-1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last =Schaeffer | first =Francis | authorlink =Francis Schaeffer | coauthors = | title =A Christian Manifesto | publisher =Crossway Books | year =1982 | location = | pages = | url = | doi = | isbn=0-89107-233-0 }}</ref><ref name=berlet1998 /> Social scientists have used the word "dominionism" to refer to adherence to [[Dominion Theology]]<ref name="Barron1992a">Barron, Bruce. 1992. ''Heaven on Earth? The Social & Political Agendas of Dominion Theology.'' Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-53611-1.</ref><ref name="DavisHankins2003">Davis, Derek H. and Hankins, Barry, 2003. ''New Religious Movements and Religious Liberty in America'', Baylor University Press.</ref><ref name="DavidsonHarris2006">Davidson, Carl and Harris, Jerry, 2006. "Globalisation, theocracy and the new fascism: the US Right's rise to power", ''Race and Class'' 47 (3), 47-67.</ref> as well as to the influence in the broader [[Christian Right]] of ideas inspired by Dominion Theology.<ref name="Barron1992a"/>

In the early 1990s, sociologist [[Sara Diamond]]<ref name="Diamond1989a">Diamond, Sara. 1989. ''Spiritual Warfare: The Politics of the Christian Right''. Boston: South End Press.</ref><ref name="Diamond1995a">Diamond, Sara. 1995. ''Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States.'' New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 0-89862-864-4.</ref> and journalist [[Frederick Clarkson]]<ref name="Clarkson1994a">Clarkson, Frederick, 1994. [http://www.publiceye.org/magazine/v08n1/chrisrec.html Christian Reconstructionism: Theocratic Dominionism Gains Influence"], ''[[Political Research Associates|The Public Eye]]'' 8, Nos. 1 & 2, March/June 1994.</ref><ref name="Clarkson1997a">Clarkson, Frederick. 1997. ''Eternal Hostility: The Struggle Between Theocracy and Democracy.'' Monroe, Maine: Common Courage. ISBN 1-56751-088-4</ref> defined ''dominionism'' as a movement that, while including [[Dominion Theology]] and [[Christian Reconstructionism]] as subsets, is much broader in scope, extending to much of the [[Christian Right]].<ref>In her early work, Diamond sometimes used the term ''dominion theology'' to refer to this broader movement, rather than to the specific theological system of Reconstructionism.</ref> Beginning in 2004 with essayist Katherine Yurica,<ref name="Yurica2005a">Yurica, Katherine 2004. [http://www.yuricareport.com/Dominionism/TheDespoilingOfAmerica.htm "The Despoiling of America" published February 11, 2004]. Retrieved 3 October 2007. And also published in ''Toward a New Political Humanism,'' Edited by Barry F. Seidman and Neil J. Murphy, Prometheus Books, New York, 2004.</ref><ref name="Yurica2005b">Yurica, Katherine 2004. [http://www.yuricareport.com/Religion/TheBloodGuiltyChurches.html Blood Guilty Churches], 19 January 2005. Retrieved 6 October 2007.</ref><ref name="Yurica2005c">Yurica, Katherine 2005. [http://www.yuricareport.com/Dominionism/Conference/YuricaRespondsToKurtz%20.html Yurica Responds to Stanley Kurtz Attack], 23 May 2005. Retrieved 6 October 2007.</ref> a group of authors including journalist [[Chris Hedges]] <ref name="Hedges2004a">[http://www.theocracywatch.org/chris_hedges_nov24_04.htm The Christian Right and the Rise of American Fascism By Chris Hedges], ''[[TheocracyWatch]]''.</ref><ref name="Hedges2005a">{{cite news |url=http://www.harpers.org/archive/2005/05/0080541 |title=Feeling the hate with the National Religious Broadcasters |accessdate=2007-04-11 |last=Hedges |first=Chris |month=May | year=2005 |publisher=Harper's }}</ref><ref name="Hedges2007a">Hedges, Chris, ''American Fascists: The Christian Right and the War on America'', Free Press, 2006.</ref> Marion Maddox,<ref name="Maddox2005a">Maddox, Marion 2005. ''God under Howard: The Rise of the Religious Right in Australian Politics'', Allen & Unwin.</ref> James Rudin,<ref name="Rudin2006a">Rudin, James 2006. ''The Baptizing of America: The Religious Right's Plans for the Rest of Us,'' New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.</ref> [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]],<ref name="HarrisLAT">Harris, Sam 2007. "[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-oe-harris15mar15,0,5899452.story God's dupes]", ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 15 March 2007. Retrieved 8 October 2007.</ref> and the group [[TheocracyWatch]]<ref name="TheocracyWatch2005a">[http://www.theocracywatch.org/ "The Rise of the Religious Right in the Republican Party"], ''[[TheocracyWatch]]'', Last updated: December 2005; URL accessed May 8, 2006.</ref> began applying the term to a broader spectrum of people than have sociologists such as Diamond.

Full adherents to reconstructionism are few and marginalized among [[Conservative Christianity|conservative Christians]].<ref name="Martin1996a">Martin, William. 1996. ''With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America''. New York: Broadway Books.</ref>{{page needed}}<ref name="Diamond1998p213">Diamond, Sara, 1998. ''Not by Politics Alone: The Enduring Influence of the Christian Right'', New York: Guilford Press, p.213.</ref><ref name="OrtizKennedy">Ortiz, Chris 2007. [http://www.chalcedon.edu/blog/2007_09_01_archive.php#3737641030821242405 "Gary North on D. James Kennedy"], [[Chalcedon Foundation|Chalcedon Blog]], 6 September 2007.</ref> The terms "dominionist" and "dominionism" are rarely used for self-description, and their usage has been attacked from several quarters. [[Chip Berlet]] wrote that "some critics of the Christian Right have stretched the term dominionism past its breaking point."<ref name="Berlet2005a">Berlet, Chip, 2005. [http://www.publiceye.org/christian_right/dominionism.htm The Christian Right, Dominionism, and Theocracy]. Retrieved 25 September 2007.</ref> [[Sara Diamond]] wrote that "[l]iberals' writing about the Christian Right's take-over plans has generally taken the form of conspiracy theory."<ref name="Diamond1995b">Diamond, Sara. 1995. "[http://zena.secureforum.com/Znet/ZMag/articles/feb95diamond.htm Dominion Theology]." ''Z Magazine'', February 1995</ref> Journalist Anthony Williams charged that its purpose is "to smear the Republican Party as the party of domestic Theocracy, facts be damned."<ref name="Williams2005a">{{cite journal |url=http://www.frontpagemagazine.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=17957 |title="Dominionist" Fantasies |author=Anthony Williams |date=2005-05-04 |journal=FrontPage Magazine |accessdate=2007-05-04}}</ref> [[Stanley Kurtz]] labeled it "conspiratorial nonsense," "political paranoia," and "[[association fallacy|guilt by association]],"<ref name="Kurtz2005b">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200505020944.asp |title=Dominionist Domination: The Left runs with a wild theory |author=Stanley Kurtz |date=2005-05-02 |journal=[[National Review|National Review Online]] |accessdate=2007-10-06}}</ref> and decried Hedges' "vague characterizations" that allow him to "paint a highly questionable picture of a virtually faceless and nameless 'Dominionist' Christian mass."<ref name="Kurtz2005a">{{cite journal |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/kurtz/kurtz200504280758.asp |title=Scary Stuff |author=Stanley Kurtz |date=2005-04-28 |journal=[[National Review|National Review Online]] |accessdate=2007-10-06}}</ref> Kurtz also complained about a perceived link between average Christian evangelicals and [[extremism]] such as [[Christian Reconstructionism]]:

<blockquote>The notion that conservative Christians want to reinstitute slavery and rule by genocide is not just crazy, it's downright dangerous. The most disturbing part of the ''Harper's'' cover story (the one by Chris Hedges) was the attempt to link Christian conservatives with Hitler and [[fascism]]. Once we acknowledge the similarity between conservative Christians and fascists, Hedges appears to suggest, we can confront Christian evil by setting aside 'the old polite rules of democracy.' So wild conspiracy theories and visions of genocide are really excuses for the Left to disregard the rules of democracy and defeat conservative Christians — by any means necessary.<ref name="Kurtz2005b"/></blockquote>

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
* [[Anthropology of religion]]
* [[Antireligion]]
* [[Antitheism]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Christian televangelist scandals]]
* [[Christianity and violence]]
* [[Church of the SubGenius]]
* [[Civil religion]]
* [[Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Conversational intolerance]]
* [[Deism]]
* [[Development of religion]]
* [[Dogma]]
* [[Folk religion]]
* [[The Flying Spaghetti Monster]]
* [[God is dead]]
* [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]]
* [[Magical thinking]]
* [[Metaethics]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Problem of evil]] and [[Theodicy]]
* [[Psychology of religion]]
* [[Rationalism]]
* [[Religion]]
* [[Religiosity and intelligence]]
* [[Religious belief]]
* [[Religious satire]]
* [[Russell's teapot]]
* [[Social criticism]]
* [[Sociology of religion]]
* [[Supernatural]]
* [[Superstition]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Theology]]
* [[True-believer syndrome]]
* ''[[The Root of All Evil?]]''
{{col-break}}
'''Criticism of specific religions'''
* [[Criticism of Christianity]]
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
* [[Criticism of Islam]]
* [[Criticism of Judaism]]
* [[Criticism of Buddhism]]
* [[Criticism of Mormonism]]
* [[Criticism of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
* [[Criticism of the Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses]]
* [[Controversies about Opus Dei]]
* [[Scientology controversy]]
{{col-break}}
'''Notable critics of religion'''
* [[Douglas Adams]]
* [[Samuel Clemens]]
* [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [[Richard Dawkins]]
* [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]]
* [[Christopher Hitchens]]
* [[David Hume]]
* [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
* [[Thomas Paine]]
* [[Bertrand Russell]]
* [[Voltaire]]
{{portal|Atheism|Atom_of_Atheism_(lowres)-Zanaq.png}}
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book
| title=Treatise on the Gods
| publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press
| year=1930
| isbn=0801885361
| first=H. L.
| last=Mencken
| authorlink=H. L. Mencken
}}
* {{Cite book
| title=[[Why I am not a Christian]]
| publisher=Barlow Press
| year=1957
| isbn=1409727211
| first=Bertrand
| last=Russell
| authorlink=Bertrand Russell
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.users.bigpond.com/pmurray/exchristian/stories/byWhyLeft.html Why I left]
*[http://www.biota.org/people/douglasadams/ Douglas Adams's speech: Is there an Artificial God?]
*[http://www.evolutionary-metaphysics.net/index.html The Academy of Evolutionary Metaphysics]
*[http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm "Why I am Not a Christian" by Bertrand Russell, March 6, 1927]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/religious_criticism.htm A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/adolf_grunbaum/poverty.html The Poverty of Theistic Morality by Adolf Grünbaum]
*[http://www.meta-religion.com/Psychiatry/The_Paranormal/trascendent_experiences.htm Transcendent Experience and Temporal Lobe Epilepsy]
*[http://www.gspaulscienceofreligion.com/ The Science of Religion] by [[Gregory S. Paul]]

{{Criticism of religion}}
{{irreligion}}
{{philosophy of religion}}
{{Religion topics}}

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[[Category:Criticism of religion]]
[[Category:Study of religion]]
[[Category:Religion and violence]]

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Revision as of 19:28, 4 February 2010

omg!! jesus stole my pants!

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