View source for Culture of Myanmar

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{EngvarB|date=November 2015}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Culture of Myanmar}}
{{Contains special characters|Burmese}}
The '''culture of Myanmar''' ('''Burma''') ({{Lang-my-name-MLCTS|MY='''မြန်မာ့ယဉ်ကျေးမှု'''|MLCTS=/mranma yanykye:hmu/}} ) has been heavily influenced by [[Buddhism in Myanmar|Buddhism]]. Burmese culture has also been influenced by its neighbours.<ref name=IndiaPBBC>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18225010 |title=India PM Manmohan Singh in historic Burma visit |date=28 May 2012 |work=[[BBC News]] |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-date=18 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181218002653/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18225010 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Connor1925>{{cite journal |last1= Connor|first1= JP|year= 1925|title= The Ramayana in Burma|journal= Journal of the Burma Research Society|volume= 1|issue= XV}}</ref><ref name= toru1994book>{{cite book |title= The Burmese Versions of the Rama Story and Their Peculiarities|first= O.|last= Toru|publisher= Tradition and Modernity in Myanmar: Proceedings of an International Conference Held in Berlin from 7 to 9 May 1993|year= 1993}}</ref>

Since the dethronement of the [[Konbaung dynasty]] in the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]], [[Presidencies and provinces of British India|British colonial rule]] and [[Westernization|westernisation]] have shaped various aspects of Myanmar culture. Today, Myanmar's culture is characterized by the rich diversity of its ethnic groups, each contributing to a unique cultural identity.

==Fine and applied arts==
[[File:Burmese lacquerware.JPG|thumb|A wide range of Burmese lacquerware from [[Bagan]]]]

Historically, [[Art of Myanmar|Myanmar art]] was based on Buddhist themes. There are several regional styles of Buddha images, each with certain distinctive characteristics. For example, the Mandalay style, which developed in the late 1800s, consists of an oval-shaped Buddha with realistic features, including naturally curved eyebrows, smaller but still prominent ears, and a draping robe.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lasieexotique.com/mag_buddha_I/mag_buddha_I.html |title=Buddha Images from Burma, Part I |access-date=30 July 2007 |work=L'Asie Exotique |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618163429/http://www.lasieexotique.com/mag_buddha_I/mag_buddha_I.html |archive-date=18 June 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> There are 10 traditional arts, called ''pan sè myo'' ({{lang|my|ပန်းဆယ်မျိုး}}), listed as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-arts/index.htm |title=Myanmar Traditional Arts |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104230600/http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-arts/index.htm |archive-date=4 January 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref>

{{colbegin}}
# [[Blacksmith]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းပဲ}} ''ba-bè'')
# [[Woodcarving]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းပု}} ''ba-bu'')
# [[Goldsmith]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းထိမ်}} ''ba-dein'')
# [[Stucco|Stucco relief]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းတော့}} ''pandaw'')
# [[Masonry]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းရန်}} ''pa-yan'')
# [[Stone carving]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းတမော့}} ''pantamaw'')
# [[Turnery]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းပွတ်}} ''panbut'')
# [[Painting]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းချီ}} ''bagyi'')
# [[Lacquerware]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းယွန်း}} ''panyun'')
# [[Bronze|Bronze casting]] ({{lang|my|ပန်းတဉ်း}} ''badin'')
{{colend}}

In addition to the traditional arts are silk weaving, pottery, tapestry making, gemstone engraving, and [[gold leaf]] making. Temple architecture is typically of brick and stucco, and pagodas are often covered with layers of gold leaf while monasteries tend to be built of wood (although monasteries in cities are more likely to be built of modern materials). A very common roofing style in Burmese architecture is called ''[[pyatthat]]'' ({{lang|my|ပြာသာဒ်}}), which is a many tiered and spired roof.

[[File:Myanmar cement sculpture.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of [[Thagyamin]] [[Nat (spirit)|nat]]]]
[[File:Myanmar-mythical-lion.jpg|thumb|Sculpture of Myanmar mythical lion]]
[[File:Burmese Ramayana dance.jpg|thumb|A theatrical performance of the Mon dance]]

== Literature ==
{{main|Literature of Burma}}
Buddhism, notably the Jataka Tales, has greatly influenced Burmese literature. Many historical works are nonfiction. However, British colonization introduced many [[Genre fiction|genres of fiction]], which have become extremely popular today. Poetry features prominently, and there are several forms of poetry unique to Burmese literature. By 1976, only 411 titles were published annually, compared to 1882, when 445 titles were published. Various factors, especially the lengthened bureaucratic process to obtain printing permits, censorship, and increasing economic hardship of consumers because of the socialist economic schemes, contributed to the decline of Burmese literary output.

Popular novels have similar themes to Western novels, often involving adventure, espionage, detective work, and romance. Many writers also translate Western novels, especially those of [[Arthur Hailey]] and [[Harold Robbins]]. The flourishing translation sector is the result of the Burmese government, which did not sign the Universal Copyright Convention Agreement, which would have forced Burmese writers to pay royalties to the original writers.

Short stories, often published in magazines, also enjoy tremendous popularity. They often deal with everyday life and have political messages (such as subtle criticisms of the capitalist system), partly because, unlike novels, short stories are not censored by the Press Scrutiny Board. Poetry is also a popular genre today, as it was during the monarchical times. However, unlike novels and other works, which use literary Burmese, poetry uses vernacular rather than literary Burmese. This reform movement is led by left-leaning writers who believe laymen's language (the vernacular and colloquial form of Burmese) should be used instead of formal Burmese in literature.

One of the greatest female writers of the Post-colonial period is [[Journal Kyaw Ma Ma Lay]]. [[Khin Myo Chit]] was another important writer who wrote, among her works, The 13-Carat Diamond (1955), which was translated into many languages. The journalist [[Ludu U Hla]] was the author of numerous volumes of ethnic minority folklore, novels about inmates in U Nu-era jails, and biographies of people working in different occupations. Prime Minister [[U Nu]] himself wrote several politically oriented plays and novels.

Other prolific writers of the post-colonial era include [[Thein Phae Myint]] (and his The Ocean Traveller and the Pearl Queen, considered a Burmese classic), [[Mya Than Tint]] (known for his translations of Western classics like War and Peace), Thawda Swe and Myat Htun. Distinguished women writers, who have also been an ever-present force in Burmese literary history, include [[Kyi Aye]], [[Khin Hnin Yu]], and San San Nweh. Burmese Historians: [[Ba Shin]], [[Than Tun]], [[Thant Myint-U]], [[Htin Aung]], [[Sao Saimong]], [[Myoma Myint Kywe]], and San C. Po were famous in Burma.

== Dance ==
{{main|Dance in Burma}}
[[File:Mintha Theater 2.webm|thumb|In the Mintha Theater ([[Mandalay]]) a master teacher of the Inwa School of Performing Arts demonstrates traditional hand movements.]]

Dance in Burma can be divided into dramatic, folk and village, and [[nat (spirit)|nat]] dances, each having distinct characteristics. Although Burmese dance has been influenced by the dance traditions. ({{transl|my|yodaya aka}}), is also popular in Myanmar, Yodaya is the named that was given by Burmese for Thailand. The {{transl|my|yodaya}} dance is only dance with {{transl|my|yodaya}} for entertaining the royal families at royal court, it retains unique qualities that distinguish it from other regional styles, including angular, fast-paced and energetic movements and emphasis on pose, not movement.<ref name="cav">{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia |editor=Marshall Cavendish Publishing |year=2007 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-7631-3 |pages=630–640 }}<!--|access-date=29 August 2010--></ref>

==Music==
{{main|Music of Burma}}
[[File:Saung Mandalay.jpg|thumb|Two female musicians play the ''saung'' at a performance in Mandalay.]]

Various types of Burmese music use an array of traditional musical instruments, assembled in an orchestra known as ''[[hsaing waing]]''<ref name="sy">{{cite book|author=Shway Yoe (Sir James George Scott) 1882|title=The Burman - His Life and Notions|publisher=The Norton Library 1963|location=New York|pages=317–318, 231–242, 211–216, 376–378, 407–408}}</ref> which the Burmese ''saing saya'' [[Kyaw Kyaw Naing]] has made more widely known in the West. Traditional folk music is atypical in Southeast Asian music, as it is characterised by sudden shifts in rhythm and melody as well as change in texture and timbre.<ref name="gar">{{cite book |title=The Garland handbook of Southeast Asian music |last=Miller |first=Terry E. |author2=Sean Williams |author-link2=Sean Williams (ethnomusicologist) |year=2008 |pages=17 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96075-5}}</ref> An instrument unique to Burma is the ''[[saung|saung-gauk]]'',<ref name="sy"/> an [[arched harp]] that can be traced to pre-Hittite times.

Classical traditions of Burmese music are found in the ''[[Mahāgīta|Mahagita]]'', an extensive collection of classical songs and are typically divided into indoor and outdoor ensembles. These songs tend to be about various legends in [[Pāli|Pali]] and subsequently in Burmese intermingled with Pali, related to religion or the power and glory of monarchs, and then the natural beauty of the land, forests and the seasons, eventually feminine beauty, love, passion and longing, in addition to folk music sung in the paddy fields. Pop music, both adopted and homegrown, however, dominates the music of Burma today.

==Customs==
[[File:Earpiercingceremony.jpg|thumb|An ear-piercing ceremony at [[Mahamuni Buddha]] in [[Mandalay]]]]

The "traditional" Burmese greeting is ''[[mingalaba]]'' ({{lang|my|မင်္ဂလာပါ}}, from Pali {{IAST|maṅgala}} and roughly translated as 'auspiciousness to you'). This is, however, a comparatively recent form of greeting, first emerging during [[British rule in Burma]] during the 19th to 20th centuries, coined as a [[Burmese language]] equivalent to 'hello' or 'how are you.'<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Houtman|first=Gustaaf|title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy|date=1999|publisher=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa|isbn=978-4-87297-748-6|language=en}}</ref> More informal rhetorical greetings such as "Have you eaten?" ({{lang|my|ထမင်းစားပြီးပြီလား}} ''Htamin sa pi bi la'') and "How are you?" ({{lang|my|နေကောင်းလား}} ''Nei kaung la'') are still common.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Yin|first=Saw Myat|title=CultureShock! Myanmar: A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette|date=2013-08-15|publisher=Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd|isbn=978-981-4435-55-0|language=en}}</ref> "Hello" is also a popular greeting nowadays, whereas it used to be confined to answering the phone.

===Clothing===
{{Main|Burmese clothing}}
The typical garment of the Burmese is the Indian lungi or {{transl|my|[[longyi]]}}, a sarong worn by both men and women. This replaced the traditional paso for men and tamein for women by the 20th century.  For business and formal occasions, [[Bamar]] men wear a [[Magua (clothing)|Manchu Chinese jacket]] ({{lang|my|တိုက်ပုံအင်္ကျီ}}) over an English collar shirt (sometimes donning a turban called ''[[gaung baung]]''), while Bamar women wear a blouse buttoned at the front, called {{transl|my|yinzi}} ({{lang|my|ရင်စေ့}}) or to the side, called {{transl|my|yinbon}} ({{lang|my|ရင်ဖုံး}}), and a shawl. In urban areas, skirts and pants are becoming more common, particularly among the young.

During the British colonial era, Burmese nationalists associated traditional clothing, in particular ''Yaw longyi'' ({{lang|my|ယောလုံချည်}}), a type of [[longyi]] from the Yaw region, and ''pinni taikpon'' ({{lang|my|ပင်နီတိုက်ပုံအင်္ကျီ}}), a [[fawn (color)|fawn]]-coloured collarless jacket, with anti-colonialism and nationalist sentiment, because of a clampdown in the 1920s over increasing dissent.<ref name="edw">{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Penny |year=2008 |title=Nationalism by design. The politics of dress in British Burma |journal=IIAS Newsletter |publisher=International Institute for Asian Studies |issue=46 |pages=11 |url=http://www.iias.nl/nl/46/IIAS_NL46_11.pdf |access-date=30 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319195847/http://www.iias.nl/nl/46/IIAS_NL46_11.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Wearing "traditional" clothing was seen as a mode of passive resistance among the Burmese.<ref name="edw"/> British rule nonetheless influenced hair fashion and clothing. Cropped short hair, called ''bo ke'' ({{lang|my|ဗိုလ်ကေ}}) replaced long hair as the norm among Burmese men.<ref name="ike">{{cite journal |last1=Ikeya |first1=Chie |author-link=Chie Ikeya |year=2008 |title=The Modern Burmese Woman and the Politics of Fashion in Colonial Burma |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=67 |issue=4 |pages=1277–1308 |doi=10.1017/S0021911808001782 |s2cid=145697944 }}</ref>

Similarly, women began wearing hairstyles like ''amauk'' ({{lang|my|အမောက်}}), consisting of crested bangs curled at the top, with the traditional [[hair bun]] ({{lang|my|ဆံထုံး}}).<ref name="ike"/> The female sarong (''htamein'') became shorter, no longer extending to the feet, but to the ankles, and the length of the sarong's top decreased to reveal more waistline.<ref name="ike"/> This period also saw the introduction of a sheer [[muslin]] blouse for women, revealing a corset-like lace bodice called ''za bawli'' ({{lang|my|ဇာဘော်လီ}}).

===Speech===
The [[Burmese language]] is very age-oriented. The use of [[honorifics]] before personal names is the norm, and it is considered rude to call a person just by their name without the honorific unless they are known from childhood or youth or in the case of a younger underling. Young males are addressed as ''[[Burmese name|Maung]]'' or ''[[Burmese name|Ko]]'' (lit. brother), and older or senior men as ''[[Burmese name|U]]'' (lit. uncle). Likewise, young females are addressed as ''[[Burmese name|Ma]]'' (lit. sister), and older or senior women as ''[[Burmese name|Daw]]'' (lit. aunt), regardless of their marital status. 'Aunty' or 'Uncle' is commonly used as well today. The first and second person pronouns vary depending on whom one is speaking to and are age-dependent. Elders are spoken to in a more respectful manner and a special vocabulary exists for speaking to [[Bhikku|Buddhist monks]].<ref name="sy"/>

===Manners===
{{main|Etiquette in Burma}}
Burmese society operates on ''[[Anade|ana]]'' ({{lang|my|အားနာမှု}}), a characteristic or feeling that has no English equivalent. It is characterised by a hesitation, reluctance or avoidance, to perform an action based on the fear that it will offend someone or cause someone to lose face, or become embarrassed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/Perspective/persp2001/1-2001/nar.htm |title=The Myanmar Personality: Ah : nar hmu! |author=Dr. Sein Tu |website=www.myanmar.gov.mm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070822213342/http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/Perspective/persp2001/1-2001/nar.htm |archive-date=2007-08-22}}</ref> Also, there is the concept of ''hpon'' ({{lang|my|ဘုန်း}}; from Sanskrit ''bhaga''), which translates to "power". It is used as an explanation for the varying degrees of ethnic, socioeconomic, and gender differences between people in a society.<ref name="cav"/> ''Hpon'' refers to the cumulative result of past deeds, an idea that power or social position comes from merit earned in previous lives.<ref name="cav"/> This idea is used to justify the prevalent view that women are lesser than men, who are considered to have more ''hpon''.

Age is still considered synonymous with experience and wisdom, hence venerated. Parents and teachers are second only to the [[Three Jewels]] ({{lang|my|ရတနာသုံးပါး}} ''yadana thoun ba''), together making up the Five Boundless Beneficence ({{lang|my|အနန္တငါးပါး}} ''ananda nga ba''), and are paid obeisance (called [[gadaw]]) at special times of the year such as ''[[Thingyan]]'', beginning and end of [[Vassa|Buddhist Lent]], and usually parents before one leaves on a journey. Elders are served first at meals, and in their absence a spoonful of rice is put aside first in the pot as a token of respect ({{lang|my|ဦးချ}} ''u cha'') before serving the meal. Young people would avoid sitting on a higher level than the elders or passing in front of them unless unavoidable, and then only treading softly with a slight bow. Things would be passed to the elders using both hands together. Men may cross their legs sitting on a chair or a mat but women generally would not.

Children are taught from young 'to venerate one's elders, to respect one's peers, and to be kind to the young and weak' ({{lang|my|ကြီးသူကိုရိုသေ၊ ရွယ်သူကိုလေးစား၊ ငယ်သူကိုသနား။}} {{transl|my|kyeethu go yothei, ywedu go layza, ngethu go thana}}). Parents are believed to be solely responsible for their children's behaviour as reflected by the expressions: {{transl|my|mi ma hsonma, hpa ma hsonma}} ({{lang|my|မိမဆုံးမ ဖမဆုံးမ}} undisciplined either by mother or by father) and ''ami youk tau hnoukkyan, ahpa youk tau ko amu-aya kyan'' (bad language from bad mother, bad body-language from bad father). Saying "thank you" however is not Burmese custom between friends and within the family.

It is considered rude to touch a person's [[Human head|head]], because it is the "highest" point of the body. It is also considered taboo to touch another's feet, but worse still to point with the foot or sit with feet pointing at someone older, because the feet are considered the lowest. Also, pointing a finger at Buddha images is considered blasphemous, although this custom has slowly eroded. Shoes are always taken off upon entering homes, monasteries and pagoda compounds. A custom of the Burmese is to perambulate clockwise ({{lang|my|လက်ယာရစ်}} ''let ya yit'') around a pagoda, not counterclockwise ({{lang|my|လက်ဝဲရစ်}} ''let wè yit'').

Physical demonstrations of affection in public are common between friends of the same gender or between members of the family, but seldom seen between lovers. It is thus common to see friends walking together holding hands or with arms round each other, but couples rarely do so, except in major cities.

=== Footwear ===
[[File:Barack_Obama_poses_in_front_of_Shwedagon_Pagoda.jpg|thumb|Former US President [[Barack Obama]] poses barefoot on the grounds of [[Shwedagon Pagoda]], one of Myanmar's major Buddhist pilgrimage sites.]]

In Myanmar, footwear is customarily removed before entering a home and Buddhist places of worship.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Culture and etiquette in Myanmar (Burma) {{!}} Local customs in Myanmar (Burma)|url=https://www.roughguides.com/myanmar-burma/culture-etiquette/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=Rough Guides|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174308/https://www.roughguides.com/myanmar-burma/culture-etiquette/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many workplaces in Myanmar also have shoe-free areas, or restrict footwear altogether, with shoes typically left at the corridor or at the entrance of an office.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-11-16|title=Etiquette Advisor: Tips for doing business in Myanmar|url=https://discovery.cathaypacific.com/etiquette-advisor-tips-business-myanmar/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=Discovery|language=en-US|archive-date=24 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024173141/https://discovery.cathaypacific.com/etiquette-advisor-tips-business-myanmar/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-21|title=MYANMAR BUSINESS ETIQUETTE: THE DOS AND DON'TS OF MEETINGS IN BURMA|url=https://multiverseadvertising.com/myanmar-business-etiquette-dos-donts-meetings-burma/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=MVA|language=en-US|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027181305/https://multiverseadvertising.com/myanmar-business-etiquette-dos-donts-meetings-burma/|url-status=live}}</ref>

These customs are strictly enforced in Buddhist places of worship, including [[Burmese pagoda|Burmese pagodas]] and in [[Buddhist monasteries]] called ''[[kyaung]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gilberti|first=Christian|date=2019-05-20|title=The "Shoe Question" in Colonial Burma|url=https://www.myanmore.com/2019/05/the-shoe-question-in-colonial-burma/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=MYANMORE|language=en-US|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029172025/https://www.myanmore.com/2019/05/the-shoe-question-in-colonial-burma/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Burmese remove their footwear at such sites as a sign of religious respect.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Larkin|first=Emma|date=2003|title=The Self-Conscious Censor: Censorship in Burma under the British, 1900-1939|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/411184/summary|journal=Journal of Burma Studies|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=64–101|doi=10.1353/jbs.2003.0002|s2cid=154052253|issn=2010-314X|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=25 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425150021/http://muse.jhu.edu/article/411184/summary|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:The_British_Army_in_Burma_1945_SE4108.jpg|thumb|British soldiers remove their shoes at the entrance of Shwedagon Pagoda. To the left, a sign reads "Foot wearing is strictly prohibited" in Burmese, English, Tamil, and Urdu.]]

Strict enforcement of this custom, however, is partly a legacy of [[British rule in Burma]], during which Europeans refused and were exempted from removing their footwear when entering Buddhist places of worship.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Cheesman|first=Nick|date=2017-05-27|title=Introduction: Interpreting Communal Violence in Myanmar|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00472336.2017.1305121|journal=Journal of Contemporary Asia|volume=47|issue=3|pages=335–352|doi=10.1080/00472336.2017.1305121|s2cid=151897822|issn=0047-2336|access-date=14 October 2021|archive-date=29 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629165602/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00472336.2017.1305121|url-status=live}}</ref> In pre-colonial Burma, non-royals removed their footwear before entering palace grounds, as a token of respect for the reigning monarch. In the final years of the [[Konbaung dynasty]], diplomatic relations between the British and Burmese soured when the British Resident, a colonial representative, refused to remove his shoes upon entering the raised platform of the [[Mandalay Palace]], a decision that prevented him from meeting King [[Thibaw Min]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|last=Shah|first=Sudha|title=The King In Exile : The Fall Of The Royal Family Of Burma|date=2012-06-14|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=978-93-5029-598-4|language=en}}</ref> Consequently, the British withdrew the Resident and his delegation in October 1879, with his exit portending the [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]], after which the remaining half of the Burmese kingdom ([[Upper Burma]]) was fully annexed into British India.<ref name=":22" />

This "shoe question" became a rallying cry for Burmese nationalists, comparable to the [[cow protection movement]] in neighboring British India.<ref name=":12" /> In 1916, the nationalist [[Young Men's Buddhist Association (Burma)|Young Men's Buddhist Association]] (YMBA) began campaigning against foreigners wearing shoes in pagoda grounds, with [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] at the forefront of the campaign.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Wong-Anan|first=Nopporn|date=2007-09-28|title=Buddhist monks no strangers to Myanmar politics|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-29757620070928|access-date=2020-12-12|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029174016/https://www.reuters.com/article/idINIndia-29757620070928|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The [[Ledi Sayadaw]], a prominent Buddhist monk, penned ''On the Impropriety of Wearing Shoes on Pagoda Platforms'', which drew in widespread support for the YMBA's activism.<ref>{{Cite web|title=British Burma - The Emergence of Political Movements|url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/myanmar/history-british-3.htm|access-date=2020-12-12|website=GlobalSecurity.org|archive-date=26 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210826210210/https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/myanmar/history-british-3.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1919, after a two-year battle, Cambridge-educated barrister, [[Thein Maung]], a YMBA member, successfully persuaded the colonial government to issue an order prohibiting footwear on the grounds of religious sites.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|date=2019-03-11|title=On This Day {{!}} 'Shoe Thein Maung' Fought to Stop Colonists Trampling on Buddhist Customs|url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/on-this-day/shoe-thein-maung-fought-stop-colonists-trampling-buddhist-customs.html|access-date=2020-12-12|website=The Irrawaddy|language=en-US|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029170834/https://www.irrawaddy.com/specials/on-this-day/shoe-thein-maung-fought-stop-colonists-trampling-buddhist-customs.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Thein Maung's undertaking was in direct response to the actions of [[Archibald Cochrane (politician)|Archibald Cochrane]], future [[Governor of Burma]], who had kept his shoes on while touring [[Shwemawdaw Pagoda]] in [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]] (now Bago) in 1917, much to the indignation of locals.<ref name=":3" />

In recent years, foreigners have been successfully prosecuted and punished for refusing to remove their footwear at Burmese religious sites. In August 2017, a Russian tourist was arrested and sentenced to seven months of jail time and [[hard labor]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-08-30|title=Russian woman sentenced to 6 months jail, hard labour|url=https://www.mmtimes.com/news/russian-woman-sentenced-6-months-jail-hard-labour.html|access-date=2020-12-12|website=The Myanmar Times|archive-date=27 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027063809/https://www.mmtimes.com/news/russian-woman-sentenced-6-months-jail-hard-labour.html|url-status=live}}</ref> for repeatedly refusing to remove her shoes upon entering pagoda grounds throughout Bagan, as she had violated local customs, per Section 13(1) of the Immigration Act.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-08-30|title=Russian tourist sentenced to another 6 months in jail for wearing shoes near pagodas|url=https://coconuts.co/yangon/news/russian-woman-sentenced-another-6-months-jail-wearing-shoes-pagodas/|access-date=2020-12-12|website=Coconuts Yangon|language=en-US|archive-date=24 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024172753/https://coconuts.co/yangon/news/russian-woman-sentenced-another-6-months-jail-wearing-shoes-pagodas/|url-status=live}}</ref> Burmese authorities subsequently announced a crackdown tourists wearing shoes inside [[Bagan]]'s pagodas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Crackdown on Shoe-Wearing in Myanmar Pagodas|url=https://www.travelpulse.com/news/destinations/crackdown-on-shoe-wearing-in-myanmar-pagodas.html|access-date=2020-12-12|website=TravelPulse|archive-date=29 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029175018/https://www.travelpulse.com/news/destinations/crackdown-on-shoe-wearing-in-myanmar-pagodas.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Cuisine==

{{main|Cuisine of Burma}}

Burmese cuisine has been influenced by [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] and [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] cuisines as well as domestic ethnic cuisines. It is not widely known throughout the world and can be characterised as having a mildly spicy taste, with a limited use of [[spices]]. A typical Burmese meal consists of several [[Burmese curry|Burmese curries]], a soup, steamed rice and fermented sauce of preserved [[fish]], along with vegetables for dipping. Condiments like [[Shrimp paste#Belacan or terasi|balachaung]], [[Indian pickle|Indian-style pickles]] and pickled vegetables are commonly served alongside the dishes. Although [[fish sauce]] and [[shrimp paste]] are commonly used ingredients, as in other Southeast Asian cuisines, Burmese cuisine also makes extensive use of [[chickpeas]], [[lentils]] and [[tamarind]], which is used to add a sour flavour rather than the [[lime juice]] or [[vinegar]] used in other cuisines.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Appetizer Atlas: A World of Small Bites |last=Meyer |first=Arthur |author2=Jon M. Vann |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-471-41102-4 |pages=274–276 }}<!--|access-date=13 September 2010--></ref>

Ethnic cuisines, in particular Shan cuisine, are also prominently found throughout Burma, as are Indian and Chinese dishes, particularly in urban areas. The de facto [[national dish]] is [[mohinga]] ({{lang|my|မုန့်ဟင်းခါး}}), rice noodles in a rich fish soup. [[Burmese salads]] ({{lang|my|အသုပ်}}), especially [[lahpet|laphet thoke]], which is a salad of pickled tea leaves, are also popular dishes. The Burmese traditionally eat with their fingers, although the usage of Western utensils and chopsticks have become more widespread, especially in towns and cities. Indian breads like [[paratha]] and [[naan]] or [[rice noodles]] are also commonly eaten with dishes, in addition to rice.

==Weddings==
{{more|Weddings in Myanmar}}
[[File:Burmese wedding procession.jpg|thumb|A wedding procession, with the groom and bride dressed in traditional Burmese wedding clothes, reminiscent of royal attire]]

Weddings are considered one of the [[Twelve Auspicious Rites]] in Burmese culture. Traditional Burmese folklore considers love to be destiny, as the Hindu god [[Brahma]] writes one's destiny in love on a child's brow when he or she is six days old, called ''na hpuza'' ({{lang|my|နဖူးစာ}}, lit. "destiny on the forehead"). A Burmese wedding can be religious or secular and extravagant or simple. Traditionally, a marriage is recognised with or without a ceremony when the man's [[longyi]] (sarong) is seen hanging from a rail of the house or if the couple eats from the same plate. Dowries are typically unheard of, and [[arranged marriage]] is not a custom of the common Burmese.

Weddings are traditionally avoided during the [[Vassa|Buddhist lent]], which lasts three months from July to October.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mmtimes.com/no390/t001.htm |title=Yangon hotels prepare for post-Lent wedding rush |author=Aye Sapay Phyu |author2=Yadana Htun |date=29 October 2007 |work=Myanmar Times |access-date=22 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518000301/http://www.mmtimes.com/no390/t001.htm |archive-date=18 May 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

Generally speaking, Buddhist monks are not present to conduct the wedding and solemnise the marriage, as they are forbidden to officiate a marriage, which is considered a worldly affair ({{transl|my|lokiya}}).<ref name="bw">{{cite web|url=http://www.thisismyanmar.com/myanmars/b-wedding.htm |title=Burmese Wedding |last=U Harry Than Htut |date=23 February 2007 |access-date=12 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927192058/http://www.thisismyanmar.com/myanmars/b-wedding.htm |archive-date=27 September 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref> However, they may be invited to bless the newly wed couple and recite a protective ''[[paritta]]''.<ref name="spi"/> Typically, the bride and groom arrange an almsgiving feast to monks the morning of the wedding to gain merit.<ref name="bw"/>

A more extravagant wedding requires months of preparation, including consultation with an astrologer in choosing the most auspicious time and setting of the event. Also, a master of ceremonies, typically a [[brahmin]], is hired to preside over the ceremony. The bride and groom sit on cushions next to each other. At the beginning of the wedding, the Brahmin blows a conch shell to commence the ceremony and joins the palms of the couple, wraps them in white cloth, and dips the joined palms in a silver bowl. The Burmese word "to marry" is ''let htat'' ({{lang|my|လက်ထပ်}}), which literally means "to join palms together". After chanting a few [[Sanskrit]] mantras, the Brahmin takes the couple's joined palms out of the bowl and blows the [[conch shell]] to end the ceremony.<ref>{{cite news |first=Nyunt |last=Win |title=Traditional weddings victim of convenience |work=The Myanmar Times |date=30 October 2006 }}</ref> Afterward, entertainers perform, and the wedding is ended with a speech by a guest of higher social standing. Wedding receptions at a hotel, serving tea and ice cream, are common in urban areas.

==Funerals==
{{also|Phongyibyan}}
[[File:Bodleian Ms. Burm. a. 5 fol075-3.jpg|thumbnail|right|19th-century funeral cart and spire, which would form part of the procession from the home to the place of cremation]]

Burmese funerals typically last a week, with the body traditionally buried or cremated on the third day. [[Burial]] is common, but [[cremation]], more common in the cities, is also practised by orthodox Buddhists and monks in Burma.<ref>{{cite book|last=Köllner|first=Helmut|author2=Axel Bruns|title=Myanmar (Burma)|publisher=Hunter Publishing|year=1998|pages=57|isbn=978-3-88618-415-6}}</ref> A coin, called ''kudoga'' ({{lang|my|ကူးတို့ခ}}) is placed in the mouth of the deceased person, to pay a "ferry toll" for crossing death.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Burman, His Life and Notions |last=Scott |first=James George |author-link=James George Scott |year=1882 |isbn=978-1-115-23195-4 |pages=590–594 |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/burmanhislife&notions-scott-2.pdf |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-date=2 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702231419/http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs09/burmanhislife%26notions-scott-2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Before the actual interment of the body, an offering of [[turmeric]]-coated rice is given to appease the ''bhummazo'' ({{lang|my|ဘုမ္မစိုး}}), the guardian deity of the earth.<ref name="spi">{{cite book |title=Buddhism and Society: a great tradition and its Burmese vicissitudes |edition=2nd|last=Spiro |first=Melford E. |year=1982 |publisher=University of California Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-520-04672-6 |pages=248–254 }}<!--|access-date=19 September 2010--></ref> During the actual funeral, gifts in the form of paper [[Hand fan|fans]] containing the deceased person's name, as well as Buddhist scriptures relating to the [[impermanence]] of life (anicca) and [[samsara]] are distributed to all attendees.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Min Zin |title=Burmese Buddhism and its Impact on Social Change |journal=Virginia Review of Asian Studies |pages=2 |url=http://www.virginiareviewofasianstudies.com/files/archives/2003/Burmese_zin.pdf |access-date=19 September 2010 |archive-date=30 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430010313/http://www.virginiareviewofasianstudies.com/files/archives/2003/Burmese_zin.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

In urban areas, flower wreaths and florals are typically given at a funeral, as well as [[money]], for less well-to-do families. However, in villages, more practical gifts such as food items are given to the grieving family. For seven days, the windows and doors of the house in which the person died may be left open, to let the deceased person's consciousness or "spirit", called {{transl|my|leippya}} ({{lang|my|လိပ်ပြာ}}, {{lit|butterfly}}) leave the home, and a vigil may be kept at nighttime. On the seventh day, called {{transl|my|yet le}} ({{lang|my|ရက်လည်}}), a meal is offered to monks, who in turn recite blessings, protective [[paritta]]s and transfer [[Merit (Buddhism)|merit]] to the deceased, concluded with a [[Libation#Buddhist water libation|Buddhist water libation]] ceremony.<ref name="spi"/>

==Religion==
{{main|Religion in Myanmar}}
[[File:Buddha worshippers, Shwedagon Pagoda, Yangon, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|230px|A group of Buddhist worshipers at Shwedagon Pagoda, an important religious site for Burmese Buddhists]]

{{bar box
|title=Religion in Myanmar
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=230px
|left1=religion
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent|Buddhism|yellow|89}}
{{bar percent|Christianity|blue|4}}
{{bar percent|Islam|black|4}}
{{bar percent|Hinduism|orange|1}}
{{bar percent|Others incl. Animism, Chinese Traditional Religion|purple|2}}
}}
Myanmar is a predominantly [[Theravada Buddhist]] country. Buddhism reached Burma around the beginning of the Christian era, mingling with indigenous form of [[Hinduism]]. The [[Pyu]] and [[Mon people|Mon]] kingdoms of the first millennium were Hindu-Buddhist. According to traditional history, King [[Anawrahta]] of [[Bagan]] adopted Buddhism in 1056 and went to war with the [[Mon people|Mon]] kingdom of [[Thaton]] in the south of the country to obtain the Buddhist [[Tripitaka|Canon]] and learned monks. The religious tradition created at this time, and which continues to the present day, is a syncretic mix of what might be termed 'pure' Buddhism (of the Theravada school) with deep-rooted elements of the original Hindu-animist culture or [[Nat (spirit)|nat worship]]<ref name="sy" /><ref name="am">{{cite book|author=Andrew Marshall|year=2002|title=The Trouser People|url=https://archive.org/details/trouserpeoplesto00mars|url-access=registration|publisher=Counterpoint|location=Washington DC|pages=[https://archive.org/details/trouserpeoplesto00mars/page/61 61]–63, 32–33, 11113|isbn=9781582431208}}</ref> and even strands of Hinduism and the [[Mahayana]] tradition of northern India.

[[Islam]] reached Burma at approximately the same time, but never gained a foothold outside the geographically isolated seaboard running from modern-day Bangladesh southward to [[Irrawaddy Delta]] (modern [[Rakhine State]], formerly Arakan, an independent kingdom until the eighteenth century). The colonial period saw a huge influx of Muslim Indians into [[Yangon]] and other cities, and the majority of Yangon's many mosques owe their origins to these immigrants.

[[File:St mary pulpit.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Saint Mary's Cathedral, Yangon|Saint Mary's Cathedral]] in Downtown Yangon is the largest Roman Catholic cathedral in Burma.]]

[[Christianity]] was brought to Burma by European missionaries in the 1800s. It made little headway among Buddhists, but has been widely adopted by non-Buddhists such as the [[Chin people|Chin]], [[Karen people|Karen]], and [[Jingpo people|Kachin]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Myanmar Baptist Convention]] and the Assemblies of God of Burma are the largest Christian denominations in Burma. Burma is home to the second largest population of Baptists in the world, after the United States, the result of American missionary work.

The Chinese contribution to Burma's religious mix has been slight, but several traditional Chinese temples were established in Yangon and other large cities in the nineteenth century when large-scale Chinese migration was encouraged by the British. Since approximately 1990 this migration has resumed in huge numbers, but the modern Chinese immigrants seem to have little interest in religion. Some more isolated indigenous peoples in the more inaccessible parts of the country still follow traditional [[animism]].

Burma has nominal guarantees of [[freedom of religion|freedom of religious expression]], although religious minorities (Christians and Muslims), particularly those in the countryside are subject to discrimination. Sporadic riots between Burmese Buddhists and [[Islam in Myanmar|Burmese Muslims]] are not uncommon, and tensions between the two religious groups are high, particularly in major cities. In 2001, after the [[Taliban]]'s destruction of the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] in Afghanistan, religiously motivated riots broke out between Buddhists and Muslims across major cities in Burma, including [[Sittwe]], [[Pyay]], [[Taungoo]] and [[Bago, Burma|Bago]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck1.htm |title=Crackdown on Burmese Muslims |access-date=30 July 2007 |work=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=15 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715063333/http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/burma-bck1.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The current regime's nationalistic policy of ''Bama san-gyin,'' which considers Buddhism a key element of Burmese-ness, does provide a [[systemic bias]] in favour of Buddhists in terms of preferment in the armed forces and other State structures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncgub.net/mediagallery/download.php?mid=20070702190012811 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928070830/http://www.ncgub.net/mediagallery/download.php?mid=20070702190012811 |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2007 |title=Burma Human Rights Yearbook 2006 |access-date=6 August 2007 |format=PDF |work=National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma |pages=523–550 }}</ref>

=== Pagodas and monasteries ===
{{see also|Burmese pagoda|Kyaung}}
Aspects of Burmese culture are most apparent at [[Pagodas in Burma|religious sites]]. The country has been called the "Land of Pagodas" as the landscape is dominated by Buddhist pagodas or [[stupas]]. The four most important Burmese Buddhist pilgrimage sites are [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] in [[Yangon]], [[Mahamuni Buddha]] in [[Mandalay]], [[Kyaiktiyo Pagoda]] in [[Mon State]], and [[Bagan]], an ancient capital by the [[Ayeyarwady River]] where thousands of stupas and temples have stood for nearly a millennium in various states of repair .

Pagodas are known by their [[Pali]] terms {{transl|my|zedi}} ({{lang|my|စေတီ}}) or {{transl|my|pahto}} ({{lang|my|ပုထိုး}}), but are also commonly called {{transl|my|hpaya}} ({{lang|my|ဘုရား}}) which is synonymous with "Buddha". Monasteries are known as {{transl|my|[[kyaung|hpongyi kyaung]]}} ({{lang|my|ဘုန်းကြီးကျောင်း}}), {{transl|my|hpongyi}} meaning monk, and since they have traditionally been places of learning where village children are taught how to read and write including and more importantly Pali, the language of the [[Buddhist scriptures]], school also came to be called {{transl|my|kyaung}} ({{lang|my|ကျောင်း}}) in the [[Burmese language]].

== Traditional festivals ==

There are twelve months in the [[traditional Burmese calendar]] and twelve corresponding festivals.<ref name="yc">{{cite web|url=http://www.yangoncity.com.mm/1.About_ygn/9.festival/default.asp |title=Introduction of Myanma Festivals |access-date=14 November 2006 |work=Yangon City Development Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614002657/http://www.yangoncity.com.mm/1.About_ygn/9.festival/default.asp |archive-date=14 June 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref> Most of the festivals are related to [[Buddhism in Burma|Burmese Buddhism]] and in any town or village the local ''paya pwè'' (the [[pagoda festival]]) is the most important one.<ref name="sy"/>

The most well-known festival is [[Thingyan]], a four-day celebration of the coming [[Lunar New Year]]. This festival is held prior to the Burmese New Year, the first day of Tagu which falls in mid-April. It is related and similar to other Southeast Asian New Year festivals ([[Songkran (Thailand)|Songkran]], [[Cambodian New Year]], [[Sinhalese New Year]] and [[Songkran (Lao)|Lao New Year]]), people splash water on one another. However, Thingyan has religious significance, marking the days in which Buddhists are expected to observe the [[Eight Precepts]] of Buddhism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/atthasila.html |title=The Eight Precepts |access-date=23 July 2006 |archive-date=22 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222124019/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/atthasila.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Sports==
{{Main|Sport in Myanmar}}
{{See also|Traditional games of Myanmar}}

===Football===
[[Association football|Football]] is the most popular sport in Myanmar.<ref name="am"/> Similar to football, ''[[chinlone]]'' ({{langx|my|ခြင်းလုံး}}) is an indigenous sport that utilises a rattan ball and is played using mainly the feet and the knees, but the head and also the arms may be used except the hands.<ref name="sy"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-culture/chinlon.htm |title=Chinlon - Myanmar Traditional Sport |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060623110224/http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-culture/chinlon.htm |archive-date=23 June 2006 |df=dmy }}</ref>

===Lethwei===
''[[Lethwei]]'' ({{langx|my|လက်ဝှေ့}}; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|<small>IPA</small>]]: {{IPA-my|lɛʔ.ʍḛ|}}), or Burmese bareknuckle boxing, is the most popular combat sport in Myanmar. It is a Burmese full-contact martial art called ''[[Thaing (burmese)|thaing]]'', divided into ''[[bando]]'' (unarmed combat) and ''[[banshay]]'' (armed combat).

===Regatta===
Of the twelve seasonal festivals, [[regattas]] are held in the month of ''Tawthalin'' (August/September). The term typically describes racing events of rowed or sailed water craft.

===Equestrian===
[[Equestrianism|Equestrian]] events were held by the royal army in the time of the Burmese kings in the month of ''Pyatho'' (December/January).<ref name="yc"/>

===Cricket===
During British rule, the game of [[cricket]] was played by the ruling British, with the [[Burma national cricket team]] playing a number of [[first-class cricket|first-class]] matches. The team exists today, although no longer of first-class quality and is an affiliate member of the [[International Cricket Council]].

===Basketball===
Burma also has a [[Burma national basketball team|basketball team]], which qualified for the [[Basketball at the Asian Games|Asian Games]] in the past.

<gallery widths=180>
File:Burmese regatta.JPG|''Hlei pyaingbwè'' - a Burmese regatta
File:Burmese equestrian sports.jpg|''Myinhkin thabin'' - equestrian sport
File:Bodleian Ms. Burm. a. 5 fol 170.jpg|A bull fight, 19th-century watercolour
File:Bodleian Ms. Burm. a. 5 fol 162.jpg|Boxing match, 19th-century watercolour
</gallery>

== Cinema and Photography ==
{{Main|Cinema of Myanmar}}

The cinema of Myanmar and former British Burma has a long history dating back to the 1910s. Burma's first film was a recording of the funeral of [[Tun Shein]] - a leading politician of the 1910s, who campaigned for Burmese independence in [[London]]. During the 1920s and 1930s, many Burmese-owned film companies (such as A1, New Burma, British Burma, The Imperial, Bandula and Yan Gyi Aung) made and produced several films. Some of the famous directors of this era were Nyi Pu, Sunny, Tote Kyi, and Tin Pe. The first Burmese [[sound film]] was produced in 1932 in [[Bombay]], [[India]] with the title ''Ngwe Pay Lo Ma Ya'' (Money Can't Buy It) and directed by Tote Kyi. Films dealing with social issues and political themes became popular in the 1930s.

After [[World War II]], Burmese cinema continued to address political themes. Many of the films produced in the early [[Cold War]] era had a strong propaganda element to them. The film ''Palè Myetyay'' (Tear of Pearl), produced in the wake of the Kuomintang invasion of Burma in the 1950s, highlighted the importance of the armed forces or [[Tatmadaw]] to the country. ''Ludu Aung Than'' (The People Win Through) featured anti-Communist propaganda. The script was written by U Nu who served as Prime Minister during the 1950s.<ref>Charney, Michael W. (2009) "Ludu Aung Than: Nu's Burma During the Cold War," in Christopher E. Goscha & Christian F. Ostermann (ed.), ''Connecting Histories: Decolonization and the Cold War in Southeast Asia, 1945-1962'' (Washington, DC & Stanford California: Woodrow Wilson Center Press & Stanford University Press).</ref> The famous film maker and author [[Thukha]] started producing films during this period. His most famous film is ''Bawa Thanthaya'' (The Life Cycle). Burma held its first Academy Awards in 1952. Starting with the Socialist era in 1962, there was strict censorship and control of film scripts.

In the era that followed the [[8888 Uprising|political events of 1988]], the film industry has been increasingly controlled by the government. After the 1989 move by the government to open up the economy, the movie industry was privatised. The film company Mingala became the most powerful company in the industry. Film stars who had been involved in the political activities of the 1980s and 1990s, such as Aung Lwin and Tun Wai, were banned from appearing in films.<ref>Aung Zaw, "Celluloid Disillusions," [http://www.irrawaddy.org/database/2004/vol12.3/cover.html ''Irrawaddy'', vol. 12, no. 3, March 2004] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050213182520/http://www.irrawaddy.org/database/2004/vol12.3/cover.html|date=13 February 2005}}</ref>

In the 21st century, Myanmar cinema got visibility in international film festivals. In 2014, The Maw Naing's ''[[The Monk]]'' was premiered at the [[49th Karlovy Vary International Film Festival]]. Followed by the participation in main competitions as; Wera Aung's short film ''The Robe'' at [[21st Busan International Film Festival]],  Aung Phyoe's ''Cobalt Blue'' at [[72nd Locarno Film Festival]].<ref>{{cite journal |date=5 September 2019 |title=Myanmar filmmakers circumventing censorship and negotiating international demands |url=https://teacircleoxford.com/2019/09/05/myanmar-filmmakers-circumventing-censorship-and-negotiating-international-demands-part-ii/ |url-status=live |journal=Teacircleoxford |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200217140225/https://teacircleoxford.com/2019/09/05/myanmar-filmmakers-circumventing-censorship-and-negotiating-international-demands-part-ii/ |archive-date=17 February 2020 |access-date=12 September 2019}}</ref> and Maung Sun's ''Money Has Four Legs'' at [[74th Locarno Film Festival]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 2, 2021 |title=74th Locarno Film Festival (Money Has Four Legs Open Doors: Screenings) |url=https://www.locarnofestival.ch/LFF/locarno-74/program-74/film.html?fid=1210917&l=en&eid=74 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917041238/https://www.locarnofestival.ch/LFF/locarno-74/program-74/film.html?fid=1210917&l=en&eid=74 |archive-date=17 September 2021 |access-date=July 3, 2021 |website=Locarno Film Festival |language=en}}</ref> In 2019, some local media reported a revival in the local movie industry, stating that in 2016 there were 12 movies cleared by local censorship and waiting to be screened, 18 in 2017, more than 40 in 2018, and more than  60 in 2019. The success of ''Now and Ever'' (2019), starring [[Zenn Kyi]], was also cited as evidence of the revival.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Aung Myint |first=Sithu |date=December 26, 2019 |title=Lights, camera, lots of action as movie industry enjoys a revival |url=https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/lights-camera-lots-of-action-as-movie-industry-enjoys-a-revival |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215191516/https://frontiermyanmar.net/en/lights-camera-lots-of-action-as-movie-industry-enjoys-a-revival |archive-date=15 February 2020 |access-date=March 1, 2020 |magazine=Frontier Myanmar}}</ref>

=== Photography ===
Documenting and promoting aspects of modern [[visual culture]], the [[Myanmar Photo Archive]] (MPA) is both a physical [[archive]] of photographs taken between 1890 and 1995 in [[Myanmar]] and the country's former period of [[British rule in Burma|British Burma]]. Further, MPA is an ongoing project for the public awareness of the country's [[social history]]. Through various exhibitions, an online presentation and a publication programme, MPA has become known since 2013 for spreading Myanmar's photographic heritage, both on a local and an international level. With a collection of more than 30.000 images and other related material, MPA has become the largest archive for Myanmar's photographic history. MPA also has published books on the history of photography in Myanmar and former Burma and has been engaged in public events and artistic re-evaluation of the archive's collections.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lwin Mar Htun |date=2 February 2018 |title=Exhibition Looks Back on 120 Years of Photography in Myanmar |url=https://www.irrawaddy.com/culture/exhibition-looks-back-120-years-photography-myanmar.html |access-date=10 January 2024 |website=The Irrawaddy |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Myanmar Photo Archive |url=https://www.myanmarphotoarchive.org/about/ |access-date=2024-01-12 |website=Myanmar Photo Archive |language=en}}</ref>

==National holidays==
{{main|Public holidays in Burma}}
{|class="wikitable"
! Date (2010) !! English name !! Burmese name !! Remarks
|-
| 4 January || [[Independence Day (Myanmar)|Independence Day]] || {{lang|my|လွတ်လပ်ရေးနေ့}} ''Lut lat yay nei'' || marks independence from [[British Empire]] in 1948
|-
| 12 February || [[Panglong Agreement|Union Day]] || {{lang|my|ပြည်ထောင်စုနေ့}} ''Pyidaungzu nei'' || anniversary of the [[Panglong Conference|Panglong Agreement]] in 1947
|-
| 26 February || Full Moon of Tabaung ||  {{lang|my|တပေါင်းလပြည့်နေ့}} ''Tabaung la pyei nei'' || ''Tabaung pwè'' Pagoda Festivals
|-
| 2 March || Peasants Day ||  {{lang|my|တောင်သူလယ်သမားနေ့}} ''Taungthu lèthama nei'' || anniversary of [[Ne Win]]'s coup
|-
| 27 March || [[Tatmadaw]] Day || {{lang|my|တော်လှန်ရေးနေ့}} ''Taw hlan yei nei'' || formerly Resistance Day (against the Japanese occupation in 1945)
|-
| 13–16 April || [[Thingyan|Thingyan Festival]] || {{lang|my|သင်္ကြန်}} ''Thingyan'' || celebrates and brings in the Burmese New Year
|-
| 17 April || Burmese New Year || {{lang|my|နှစ်ဆန်းတစ်ရက်နေ့}} ''Hnit hsan ta yet nei'' || marks the New Year of the [[Traditional calendar of Myanmar|Burmese calendar]]
|-
| 1 May || [[Labour Day]] ||  {{lang|my|အလုပ်သမားနေ့}} ''a louk thama nei'' || Workers' day
|-
| 8 May || Full Moon of Kason || {{lang|my|ကဆုန်လပြည့်ဗုဒ္ဓနေ့}} ''Kason la pyei Boda nei'' || anniversary of the birth, [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] and [[Parinirvana|death]] of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] celebrated by watering the [[Bodhi tree]]
|-
| 19 July || [[Burmese Martyr's Day|Martyrs' Day]] || {{lang|my|အာဇာနည်နေ့}} ''Azani nei'' || commemorates the assassination of [[Aung San]] and several other cabinet members in 1947
|-
| 26 July || [[Vassa|Beginning of Buddhist Lent]] || {{lang|my|ဝါဆိုလပြည့်နေ့}} ''Waso la pyei nei'' ||
|-
| 23 October || [[Vassa|End of Buddhist Lent]] || {{lang|my|သီတင်းကျွတ်}} ''Thadingyut'' || Festival of Lights
|-
| Oct - Nov || [[Deepavali]] || {{lang|my|ဒေဝါလီနေ့}} ''Deiwali nei'' || Hindu festival of lights day
|-
| 21 November || [[Tazaungdaing festival]] || {{lang|my|တန်ဆောင်မုန်းလပြည့်နေ့}} ''Tazaungmon la pyei nei'' || Festival of Flying Lanterns/Hot-air Balloons
|-
| 1 December (10th Day after Full Moon of Tazaungmong) || [[National Day]] || {{lang|my|အမျိုးသားနေ့}} ''Amyotha nei'' || anniversary of the first university students strike in 1920
|-
| 25 December || [[Christmas]] || {{lang|my|ခရစ္စမတ်နေ့}} ''Hkarissamat nei'' ||
|-
| Dec - Jan || [[Eid ul-Adha]] || {{lang|my|အိဒ်နေ့}} ''Id nei'' || a festival of sacrifice at the end of [[Hajj]] (annual pilgrimage to Mecca)
|-
| 5 January 2011 || Kayin (Karen) New Year || {{lang|my|ကရင်နှစ်သစ်ကူး}} ''Kayin hnithiku'' || celebrates the New Year of the [[Karen people]]
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Myanmar}}
* [[Bamar culture]]
* [[Burmese Buddhist titles]]
* [[Burmese names]]
* [[Monastic examinations]]
* [[Monastic schools in Myanmar]]
* [[Mythical creatures in Burmese folklore]]
* [[Satuditha]]
* [[University of Culture, Mandalay]]
* [[University of Culture, Yangon]]
* [[List of museums in Burma]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/literature/Literature.htm Burmese Literature inc. audio] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127013818/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/literature/Literature.htm |date=27 November 2020 }}
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/Culture/introduction_to_burmese_sculpture.htm An Introduction to Burmese Sculpture] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200220003614/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/Culture/introduction_to_burmese_sculpture.htm |date=20 February 2020 }}
* [http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/Culture/exquisite_art_of_wood.htm The Exquisite Art of Wood Carving by Pyi Phone Myint] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218102350/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/Burmese/Culture/exquisite_art_of_wood.htm |date=18 February 2020 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120614002657/http://www.yangoncity.com.mm/1.About_ygn/9.festival/default.asp Burmese Festivals]
* [http://www.mysticball-themovie.com/ Mystic Ball - the Movie (Chinlon)]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/burmese/highlights/story/2006/12/061231_yearendspecials.shtml Social and Arts Trend Changes in Burma] BBC Burmese Highlights: Year-end Specials 2006
* [http://bestmandalay.wordpress.com Living and Learning English in Mandalay]
* [http://www.burmeseboxing.com Lethwei]

{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}
{{Southeast Asia topic|Culture of}}
{{Culture of Asia}}

[[Category:Culture of Myanmar| ]]
[[Category:Culture of Southeast Asia|Myanmar]]

[[pt:Myanmar#Cultura]]