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De Morgan algebra

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In mathematics, a De Morgan algebra (named after Augustus De Morgan, a British mathematician and logician) is a structure A = (A, ∨, ∧, 0, 1, ¬) such that:

In a De Morgan algebra, the laws

do not always hold. In the presence of the De Morgan laws, either law implies the other, and an algebra which satisfies them becomes a Boolean algebra.

Remark: It follows that ¬( x∨y) = ¬x∧¬y, ¬1 = 0 and ¬0 = 1 (e.g. ¬1 = ¬1∨0 = ¬1∨¬¬0 = ¬(1∧¬0) = ¬¬0 = 0). Thus ¬ is a dual automorphism.

If the lattice is defined in terms of the order instead, i.e. (A, ≤) is a bounded partial order with a least upper bound and greatest lower bound for every pair of elements, and the meet and join operations so defined satisfy the distributive law, then the complementation can also be defined as an involutive anti-automorphism, that is, a structure A = (A, ≤, ¬) such that:

De Morgan algebras were introduced by Grigore Moisil[1][2] around 1935.[2] although without the restriction of having a 0 and an 1.[3] They were then variously called quasi-boolean algebras in the Polish school, e.g. by Rasiowa and also distributive i-lattices by J. A. Kalman.[2] (i-lattice being an abbreviation for lattice with involution.) They have been further studied in the Argentian algebraic logic school of Antonio Monteiro.[1][2]

De Morgan algebras are important for the study of the mathematical aspects of fuzzy logic. The standard fuzzy algebra F = ([0,  1], max(x, y), min(x, y), 0, 1, 1 − x) is an example of a De Morgan algebra where the laws of excluded middle and noncontradiction do not hold.

Another example is Dunn's 4-valued logic, in which false < neither-true-nor-false < true and false < both-true-and-false < true, while neither-true-nor-false and both-true-and-false are not comparable.[2]

Kleene algebra

If a De Morgan algebra additionally satisfies x ∧ ¬x ≤ y ∨ ¬y, it is called a Kleene algebra.[3][1] (This notion should not to be confused with the other Kleene algebra generalizing regular expressions.) This notion has also been called a normal i-lattice by Kalman.

Examples of Kleene algebras in the sense defined above include: lattice-ordered groups, Post algebras and Łukasiewicz algebras.[3] Boolean algebras also meet this definition of Kleene algebra. The simplest Kleene algebra that is not Boolean is Kleene's three-valued logic K3.[4] K3 made its first appearance in Kleene's On notation for ordinal numbers (1938).[5] The algebra was named after Kleene by Brignole and Monteiro.[6]

Related notions

De Morgan algebra is not the only plausible way to generalize the Boolean algebra. Another way is to keep ¬x ∧ x = 0 (i.e. the law of noncontradiction) but to drop the law of the excluded middle and the law of double negation. This approach (called semicomplementation) is well-defined even for a [meet] semilattice; if the set of semicomplements has a greatest element it is usually called pseudocomplement. If the pseudocomplement thus defined satisfies the law of the excluded middle, the resulting algebra is also Boolean. However, if only the weaker law ¬x ∨ ¬¬x = 1 is required, this results in Stone algebras.[1] More generally, both De Morgan and Stone algebras are proper subclasses of Ockham algebras.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d Blyth, T. S.; Varlet, J. C. (1994). Ockham algebras. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0-19-859938-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e Béziau, Jean-Yves (2012). "A History of Truth-Values". Logic: A History of its Central Concepts. North Holland (an imprint of Elsevier). pp. 280–281. ISBN 978-0-08-093170-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b c Cignoli, Roberto (1975). "Injective de Morgan and Kleene Algebras" (PDF). Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society. 47 (2): 269–278. doi:10.1090/S0002-9939-1975-0357259-4. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  4. ^ Kalle Kaarli; Alden F. Pixley (21 July 2000). Polynomial Completeness in Algebraic Systems. CRC Press. pp. 297–. ISBN 978-1-58488-203-9.
  5. ^ http://www.jstor.org/stable/2267778
  6. ^ Brignole, D. and Monteiro, A. Caracterisation des algebres de Nelson par des egalites, Notas de Logica Matematica, Instituto de Matematica Universidad del sur Bahia Blanca 20 (1964) A (possibly abbreviated) version of this paper appeared later in Proc. Acad. Japan doi:10.3792/pja/1195521624 doi:10.3792/pja/1195521625

Further reading

  • Raymond Balbes; Philip Dwinger (1975). Distributive lattices. University of Missouri Press. Chapter IX. De Morgan Algebras and Lukasiewicz Algebras. ISBN 978-0-8262-0163-8.
  • Birkhoff, G. review of Moisil Gr. C.. Recherches sur l’algèbre de la logique. Annales scientifiques de l’Université de Jassy, vol. 22 (1936), pp. 1–118. in J. symb. log. 1, p. 63 (1936) doi:10.2307/2268551
  • J. A. Kalman Lattices with involution, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 87 (1958), 485-491, doi:10.1090/S0002-9947-1958-0095135-X
  • Piero Pagliani; Mihir Chakraborty (2008). A Geometry of Approximation: Rough Set Theory: Logic, Algebra and Topology of Conceptual Patterns. Springer Science & Business Media. Part II. Chapter 6. Basic Logico-Algebraic Structures, pp. 193-210. ISBN 978-1-4020-8622-9.
  • Cattaneo, G. & Ciucci, D. Lattices with Interior and Closure Operators and Abstract Approximation Spaces. Lecture Notes in Computer Science 67–116 (2009). doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03281-3_3
  • "Fuzzy Logics Arising From Strict De Morgan Systems". Topological and Algebraic Structures in Fuzzy Sets: A Handbook of Recent Developments in the Mathematics of Fuzzy Sets. Springer. 2003. ISBN 978-1-4020-1515-1. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  • Maria Luisa Dalla Chiara; Roberto Giuntini; Richard Greechie (2004). Reasoning in Quantum Theory: Sharp and Unsharp Quantum Logics. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-1978-4.
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