Delphic maxims
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The Delphic maxims are a set of maxims inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Originally, they were said to have been given by the Greek god Apollo's Oracle at Delphi, Pythia, and therefore were attributed to Apollo.[1] Plato attributed them to the Seven Sages of Greece,[2] as did the 3rd-century doxographer Diogenes Laertius[3] and the 5th-century scholar Stobaeus.[4] Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain, and that "most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages".[5] Roman educator Quintilian argued that students should copy these aphorisms often to improve their moral core.[6] Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is "know thyself", which was the first of three maxims carved above the entrance to the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.
The specific order and wording of each maxim varies among different versions (and translations) of the text. Not all maxims appear in all versions.
Entrance maxims[edit]
Three maxims are known to have been inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi at least as early as the 5th century BC, and possibly earlier.[7] These inscriptions are routinely referenced and discussed by ancient authors; Plato, for example, mentions them in six of his dialogues.[a] Their exact location is uncertain; they are variously stated to have been on the wall of the pronaos (forecourt), on a column, on a doorpost, on the temple front, or on the propylaea (gateway).[9]
Although the temple was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the years, the maxims appear to have persisted into the Roman era (1st century AD), at which time, according to Pliny the Elder, they were written in letters of gold.[7][10]
The maxims are as follows:
| No. | Greek | English[7] |
|---|---|---|
| 001 | Γνῶθι σεαυτόν | Know thyself |
| 002 | Μηδὲν ἄγαν | Nothing too much |
| 003 | Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄτα | Give a pledge and trouble is at hand |
First maxim[edit]
The first maxim, "Know thyself", is alluded to many times in ancient literature, and has been called "by far the most significant of the three maxims, both in ancient and modern times".[11]
In Plato's Charmides, Critias argues that self-knowledge is the same as temperance, and that the Delphic inscription, "Know thyself!", is Apollo's admonition to those entering the sacred temple: "Be temperate!". He suggests that the sages who added the other two maxims misunderstood the purpose of the inscription, and "supposed that 'Know thyself!' was a piece of advice, and not the god's salutation to those who were entering; and so, in order that their dedications too might equally give pieces of useful advice, they wrote these words and dedicated them."[12]
Xenophon, in his Memorabilia, uses the maxim "Know thyself" as an organizing theme for his dialogue, in which Socrates explains that knowing oneself is the starting point for all good things, and failure to know oneself is the starting point of delusion, yet even from this starting point one cannot be sure one knows what is good and what is bad.[13]
Third maxim[edit]
The third maxim, "Give a pledge and trouble is at hand", has been variously interpreted. The Greek word έγγύα, here translated "pledge", can mean either (a) surety given for a loan; (b) a binding oath given during a marriage ceremony; or (c) a strong affirmation of any kind.[14] Accordingly, the maxim may be warning against any one of these things.
The correct interpretation of the maxim was being debated as early as the 1st century BC, when Diodorus Siculus discussed the question in his Bibliotheca historica.[15] In Plutarch's Septem sapientium convivium, the ambiguity of the phrase is said to have "kept many from marrying, and many from trusting, and some even from speaking".[16] Diogenes Laërtius (3rd-century AD) also makes reference to the maxim in his account of the life of Pyrrho, the founder of Pyrrhonism.[17] Exploring the origins of the Pyrrhonean doctrine of philosophical skepticism, Diogenes claims that the Delphic maxims are skeptical in nature, and interprets the third maxim to mean: "Trouble attends him who affirms anything in strong terms and confidently".[18]
Analysing the various appearances of the maxim in Greek literature, Eliza Wilkins finds the opinion of the ancient authors on the meaning of έγγύα split between the two rival interpretations of "commit yourself emphatically" and "become surety". Among Latin authors, however, the maxim is universally interpreted in the latter sense, as advice against giving surety.[19]
147 maxims of Stobaeus[edit]
In the 5th-century anthology of Stobaeus, there is a list of 147 maxims attributed to the Seven Sages of Greece.[20] Stobaeus cites a certain Sosiades as his source, but the identity of Sosiades is unknown, and it was once thought that this collection of maxims was of no great antiquity. However, parallel sayings have since been found in several ancient inscriptions, some dating to around 300 BC. These inscriptions also inform us that the original maxims were "carved on the stele at Delphi".[21][22]
The maxims given by Stobaeus are as follows:
| No. | Greek | English[b] |
|---|---|---|
| 001 | Ἕπου θεῷ | Follow God |
| 002 | Νόμῳ πείθου | Obey the law |
| 003 | Θεοὺς σέβου | Worship the Gods |
| 004 | Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ | Respect your parents |
| 005 | Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου | Be overcome by justice |
| 006 | Γνῶθι μαθών | Know what you have learned |
| 007 | Ἀκούσας νόει | Perceive what you have heard |
| 008 | Σαυτὸν ἴσθι | Be yourself |
| 009 | Γαμεῖν μέλλε | Intend to get married |
| 010 | Καιρὸν γνῶθι | Know your opportunity |
| 011 | Φρόνει θνητά | Think as a mortal |
| 012 | Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι | If you are a stranger act like one |
| 013 | Ἑστίαν τίμα | Honour the hearth (or Hestia) |
| 014 | Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ | Control yourself |
| 015 | Φίλοις βοήθει | Help your friends |
| 016 | Θυμοῦ κράτει | Control anger |
| 017 | Φρόνησιν ἄσκει | Exercise prudence |
| 018 | Πρόνοιαν τίμα | Honour providence |
| 019 | Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ | Do not use an oath |
| 020 | Φιλίαν ἀγάπα | Love friendship |
| 021 | Παιδείας ἀντέχου | Cling to discipline |
| 022 | Δόξαν δίωκε | Pursue honour |
| 023 | Σοφίαν ζήλου | Long for wisdom |
| 024 | Καλὸν εὖ λέγε | Praise the good |
| 025 | Ψέγε μηδένα | Find fault with no one |
| 026 | Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν | Praise virtue |
| 027 | Πρᾶττε δίκαια | Practice what is just |
| 028 | Φίλοις εὐνόει | Be kind to your friends |
| 029 | Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου | Watch out for your enemies |
| 030 | Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει | Exercise nobility of character |
| 031 | Κακίας ἀπέχου | Shun evil |
| 032 | Κοινὸς γίνου | Be impartial |
| 033 | Ἴδια φύλαττε | Guard what is yours |
| 034 | Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου | Shun what belongs to others |
| 035 | Ἄκουε πάντα | Listen to everyone |
| 036 | Εὔφημος ἴσθι | Be (religiously) silent |
| 037 | Φίλῳ χαρίζου | Do a favour for a friend |
| 038 | Μηδὲν ἄγαν | Nothing to excess |
| 039 | Χρόνου φείδου | Use time sparingly |
| 040 | Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον | Foresee the future |
| 041 | Ὕβριν μίσει | Despise insolence |
| 042 | Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ | Have respect for suppliants |
| 043 | Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου | Be accommodated in everything |
| 044 | Υἱοὺς παίδευε | Educate your sons |
| 045 | Ἔχων χαρίζου | Give what you have |
| 046 | Δόλον φοβοῦ | Fear deceit |
| 047 | Εὐλόγει πάντας | Speak well of everyone |
| 048 | Φιλόσοφος γίνου | Be a seeker of wisdom |
| 049 | Ὅσια κρῖνε | Choose what is divine |
| 050 | Γνοὺς πρᾶττε | Act when you know |
| 051 | Φόνου ἀπέχου | Shun murder |
| 052 | Εὔχου δυνατά | Pray for things possible |
| 053 | Σοφοῖς χρῶ | Consult the wise |
| 054 | Ἦθος δοκίμαζε | Test the character |
| 055 | Λαβὼν ἀπόδος | Give back what you have received |
| 056 | Ὑφορῶ μηδένα | Down-look no one |
| 057 | Τέχνῃ χρῶ | Use your skill |
| 058 | Ὃ μέλλεις, δός | Do what you mean to do |
| 059 | Εὐεργεσίας τίμα | Honour a benefaction |
| 060 | Φθόνει μηδενί | Be jealous of no one |
| 061 | Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε | Be on your guard |
| 062 | Ἐλπίδα αἴνει | Praise hope |
| 063 | Διαβολὴν μίσει | Despise a slanderer |
| 064 | Δικαίως κτῶ | Gain possessions justly |
| 065 | Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα | Honour good men |
| 066 | Κριτὴν γνῶθι | Know the judge |
| 067 | Γάμους κράτει | Master wedding-feasts |
| 068 | Τύχην νόμιζε | Recognize fortune |
| 069 | Ἐγγύην φεῦγε | Flee a pledge |
| 070 | Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου | Speak plainly |
| 071 | Ὁμοίοις χρῶ | Associate with your peers |
| 072 | Δαπανῶν ἄρχου | Govern your expenses |
| 073 | Κτώμενος ἥδου | Be happy with what you have |
| 074 | Αἰσχύνην σέβου | Revere a sense of shame |
| 075 | Χάριν ἐκτέλει | Fulfill a favour |
| 076 | Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου | Pray for happiness |
| 077 | Τύχην στέργε | Be fond of fortune |
| 078 | Ἀκούων ὅρα | Observe what you have heard |
| 079 | Ἐργάζου κτητά | Work for what you can own |
| 080 | Ἔριν μίσει | Despise strife |
| 081 | Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε | Detest disgrace |
| 082 | Γλῶτταν ἴσχε | Restrain the tongue |
| 083 | Ὕβριν ἀμύνου | Keep yourself from insolence |
| 084 | Κρῖνε δίκαια | Make just judgements |
| 085 | Χρῶ χρήμασιν | Use what you have |
| 086 | Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε | Judge incorruptibly |
| 087 | Αἰτιῶ παρόντα | Accuse one who is present |
| 088 | Λέγε εἰδώς | Tell when you know |
| 089 | Βίας μὴ ἔχου | Do not depend on strength |
| 090 | Ἀλύπως βίου | Live without sorrow |
| 091 | Ὁμίλει πρᾴως | Live together meekly |
| 092 | Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν | Finish the race without shrinking back |
| 093 | Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν | Deal kindly with everyone |
| 094 | Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ | Do not curse your sons |
| 095 | Γυναικὸς ἄρχε | Rule your wife |
| 096 | Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει | Benefit yourself |
| 097 | Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου | Be courteous |
| 098 | Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ | Give a timely response |
| 099 | Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας | Struggle with glory |
| 100 | Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως | Act without repenting |
| 101 | Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει | Repent of sins |
| 102 | Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει | Control the eye |
| 103 | Βουλεύου χρόνῳ | Give a timely counsel |
| 104 | Πρᾶττε συντόμως | Act quickly |
| 105 | Φιλίαν φύλαττε | Guard friendship |
| 106 | Εὐγνώμων γίνου | Be grateful |
| 107 | Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε | Pursue harmony |
| 108 | Ἄρρητον κρύπτε | Keep deeply the top secret |
| 109 | Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ | Fear ruling |
| 110 | Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ | Pursue what is profitable |
| 111 | Καιρὸν προσδέχου | Accept due measure |
| 112 | Ἔχθρας διάλυε | Do away with enmities |
| 113 | Γῆρας προσδέχου | Accept old age |
| 114 | Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ | Do not boast in might |
| 115 | Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει | Exercise (religious) silence |
| 116 | Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε | Flee enmity |
| 117 | Πλούτει δικαίως | Acquire wealth justly |
| 118 | Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε | Do not abandon honour |
| 119 | Κακίαν μίσει | Despise evil |
| 120 | Κινδύνευε φρονίμως | Venture into danger prudently |
| 121 | Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε | Do not tire of learning |
| 122 | Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε | Do not stop to be thrifty |
| 123 | Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε | Admire oracles |
| 124 | Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα | Love whom you rear |
| 125 | Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου | Do not oppose someone absent |
| 126 | Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ | Respect an elder |
| 127 | Νεώτερον δίδασκε | Teach a youngster |
| 128 | Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει | Do not trust wealth |
| 129 | Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ | Respect yourself |
| 130 | Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν | Do not begin to be insolent |
| 131 | Προγόνους στεφάνου | Crown your ancestors |
| 132 | Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος | Die for your country |
| 133 | Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου | Do not be discontented by life |
| 134 | Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα | Do not make fun of the dead |
| 135 | Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου | Share the load of the unfortunate |
| 136 | Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς | Gratify without harming |
| 137 | Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ | Grieve for no one |
| 138 | Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα | Beget from noble routes |
| 139 | Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί | Make promises to no one |
| 140 | Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει | Do not wrong the dead |
| 141 | Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός | Be well off as a mortal |
| 142 | Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε | Do not trust fortune |
| 143 | Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι | As a child be well-behaved |
| 144 | Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής | As a youth — self-disciplined |
| 145 | Μέσος δίκαιος | As of middle-aged — just |
| 146 | Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος | As an old man — sensible |
| 147 | Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος | On reaching the end — without sorrow |
Ai-Khanoum inscription[edit]
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of Ai-Khanoum (former Greco-Bactrian kingdom, and modern Afghanistan), on a Herõon (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the oikistes (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):[24]
| Greek | Transliteration | English |
|---|---|---|
| παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου, | Païs ôn kosmios ginou | As children, learn good manners |
| ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής, | hèbôn enkratès, | as young men, learn to control the passions |
| μέσος δίκαιος, | mesos dikaios | in middle age, be just |
| πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος, | presbutès euboulos | in old age, give good advice |
| τελευτῶν ἄλυπος. | teleutôn alupos. | then die, without regret. |
The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been Clearchus of Soli the disciple of Aristotle,[25] who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from Delphi:
ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.[24]
'These wise commandments of men of old
- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
In the most holy Pythian shrine
From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas'
See also[edit]
References[edit]
Notes[edit]
- ^ Benjamin Jowett's index to his translation of the Dialogues of Plato lists six dialogues which mention the Delphic inscriptions: Charmides (164D), Protagoras (343B), Phaedrus (229E), Philebus (45E, 48C), Laws (II.923A), Alcibiades I (124B, 129A, 132C).[8]
- ^ As translated by A. N. Oikonomides, who warns that his translations must be taken as "provisional", since "these thought provoking brief commandments are by no means the type of text that can be assigned easily as having one meaning."[23]
Citations[edit]
- ^ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims
- ^ Plato. "Protagoras". 343a–343b – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Diogenes Laertius. "Lives of Eminent Philosophers". 9.11.71.
- ^ Kurke, Leslie (2010). Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose. Princeton University Press. p. 109.
- ^ Parke, H.; Wormell, D. (1956). The Delphic Oracle. Vol. 1. Basil Blackwell. p. 389.
- ^ White, Devin L. (2017). Teacher of the Nations: Ancient Educational Traditions and Paul's Argument in 1 Corinthians 1-4. Walter de Gruyter. p. 83. ISBN 978-3-11-053955-4.
- ^ a b c Wilkins, Eliza G. (1929). The Delphic Maxims in Literature. University of Chicago Press. p. 1.
- ^ Jowett, Benjamin (1892). The Dialogues of Plato. Vol. 5. Macmillan and Co. p. 445.
- ^ Wilkins 1929, p. 3
- ^ Pliny the Elder. "Natural History". 7.32 – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Wilkins 1929, p. 49
- ^ Plato. "Charmides". 164d–165a – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Xenophon. "Memorabilia". 4.2.24 – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Wilkins, Eliza G. (April 1927). "Ἐγγύα πάρα δ' Ἄτα in literature". Classical Philology. 22 (2): 122.
- ^ Diodorus Siculus. "Bibliotheca historica". 9.10.4–5 – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Plutarch. "Septem sapientium convivium". Section 21 – via Perseus Digital Library.
- ^ Diogenes Laërtius. "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers". 9.71 – via Wikisource.
- ^ Wilkins 1927, p. 129
- ^ Wilkins 1927, p. 130
- ^ Wachsmuth, Kurt; Hense, Otto, eds. (1884). Joannis Stobaei Anthologium (in Latin). Vol. 3. Berolini apud Weidmannos. pp. 125–128.
- ^ Petzl, Georg (2017). "Philosophical Stones". In Perilli, L.; Taormina, D. P. (eds.). Ancient Philosophy: Textual Paths and Historical Explorations. Routledge. pp. 66–69. ISBN 9781351716031.
- ^ Judge, E. A. (1998). "Ancient Beginnings of the Modern World". In Hillard, T. W.; Kearsley, R. A.; Nixon, C. E. V.; Nobbs, A. M. (eds.). Ancient History in a Modern University. Vol. 2. William B. Eerdmans. pp. 473–476. ISBN 0-8028-3841-3.
- ^ Oikonomides, A. N. (Summer 1987). "Records of 'The Commandments of the Seven Wise Men' in the 3rd c. B.C.". The Classical Bulletin. 63 (3): 67–76.
- ^ a b Wallace, Shane (October 2016). "Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries". Greece & Rome. Second Series. 63 (2): 215. doi:10.1017/S0017383516000073. JSTOR 26776786.
- ^ Wallace 2016, p. 217
External links[edit]
- "Delphic Maxims" at Hellenion – alternative English translation of the 147 maxims