View source for Dry ice

{{Short description|Solid form of carbon dioxide}}
[[File:Dry Ice 1.jpg|thumb|Subliming dry ice pellet, with [[white frost]] on the surface]]

'''Dry ice''' colloquially means the [[solid]] form of [[carbon dioxide]]. It is commonly used for temporary refrigeration as CO<sub>2</sub> does not have a [[liquid state]] at normal atmospheric pressure and [[Sublimation (phase transition)|sublimes]] directly from the solid state to the [[gas state]]. It is used primarily as a [[cooling agent]], but is also used in [[fog machine]]s at theatres for dramatic effects. Its advantages include lower temperature than that of [[Ice|water ice]] and not leaving any residue (other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere). It is useful for preserving [[frozen food]]s (such as ice cream) where [[Refrigeration|mechanical cooling]] is unavailable.

Dry ice sublimes at {{convert|194.7|K|C F}} at Earth [[atmospheric pressure]]. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection from [[frostbite]] injury. While generally not very toxic, the [[outgassing]] from it can cause [[hypercapnia]] (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.

==Properties==
{{For|supplementary chemical data|Carbon dioxide data}}
[[File:Comparison carbon dioxide water phase diagrams.svg|thumb|350px|Comparison of [[phase diagram]]s of carbon dioxide (red) and water (blue) as a log-lin chart with phase transitions points at 1{{nbsp}}[[Standard atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] pressure]]

Dry ice is the solid form of [[carbon dioxide]] (CO<sub>2</sub>), a molecule consisting of a single [[carbon]] atom [[covalent bond|bonded]] to two [[oxygen]] [[atom]]s. Dry ice is colorless, odorless, and non-flammable, and can lower the [[pH]] of a solution when dissolved in [[water]], forming [[carbonic acid]] (H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>).<ref name="Yaws 2001 p=125">{{Harvnb|Yaws|2001|p=125}}</ref>

At pressures below 5.13 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]] and temperatures below<!--Look at the phase diagram before changing this to "above", "below" might be counterintuitive, but is correct.--> {{convert|-56.4|C|K F|}} (the [[triple point]]), CO<sub>2</sub> changes from a solid to a gas with no intervening liquid form, through a process called [[Sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]].{{efn|''Above'' the triple point, CO<sub>2</sub> goes through the more familiar transitions via a liquid phase.}} The opposite process is called [[Deposition (phase transition)|deposition]], where CO<sub>2</sub> changes from the [[gas]] to [[solid]] phase (dry ice). At atmospheric pressure, sublimation/deposition occurs at {{convert|194.7|K|C F}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barber|first=C R|date=March 1966|title=The sublimation temperature of carbon dioxide|url=https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0508-3443/17/3/312|journal=British Journal of Applied Physics|language=en|volume=17|issue=3|pages=391–397|doi=10.1088/0508-3443/17/3/312|bibcode=1966BJAP...17..391B|issn=0508-3443|access-date=2020-11-15|archive-date=2021-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629110924/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0508-3443/17/3/312|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[density]] of dry ice increases with decreasing temperature and ranges between about {{convert|1.55|and|1.7|g/cm3|lb/cuft|0|abbr=on}} below {{convert|195|K|C F}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mangan |first1=T.P. |last2=Salzmann |first2=C.G. |last3=Plane |first3=J.M.C. |last4=Murray |first4=B.J. |title={{CO2}} ice structure and density under Martian atmospheric conditions |journal=Icarus |date=September 2017 |volume=294 |pages=201–208 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2017.03.012|bibcode=2017Icar..294..201M |doi-access=free }}</ref> The low temperature and direct sublimation to a gas makes dry ice an effective [[coolant]], since it is colder than [[ice|water ice]] and leaves no residue as it changes state.<ref>{{Harvnb|Yaws|2001|p=124}}</ref> Its [[enthalpy of sublimation]] is 571 kJ/kg (25.2 kJ/mol, 136.5 calorie/g).

Dry ice is [[Chemical polarity#Nonpolar molecules|non-polar]], with a [[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|dipole moment]] of zero, so attractive [[Intermolecular force|intermolecular]] [[van der Waals force]]s operate.<ref>{{Harvnb|Verma|Khanna|Kapila|2008|p=161}}</ref> The composition results in low [[Thermal conduction|thermal]] and [[Electrical resistivity and conductivity|electrical conductivity]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Verma|Khanna|Kapila|2008|p=163}}</ref>

==History==
It is generally accepted that dry ice was first observed in 1835 by French inventor [[Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier]] (1790–1844), who published the first account of the substance.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Solidification de l'Acide carbonique|author = Thilorier|journal = Comptes Rendus|volume = 1|year = 1835|pages = 194–196|language = fr|url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29606/f194.table|access-date = 2007-07-12|archive-date = 2010-09-05|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100905095920/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29606/f194.table|url-status = live}} See also: [https://books.google.com/books?id=4GwqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA446 "Solidification of carbonic acid,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502065711/https://books.google.com/books?id=4GwqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA446 |date=2016-05-02 }} ''The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine'', '''8''' : 446–447 (1836).</ref><ref>Note:
* The ''Bulletin des Lois du Royaume de France'' (Bulletin of the laws of the kingdom of France), 9th series, part ii, no. 92, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zSoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA74 page 74] (February 1832) lists: "24° M. Thilorier (Adrien-Jean-Pierre) employé à l'administration des postes, demeurant à Paris, place Vendôme, n<sup>o</sup> 21, auquel il a été délivré le 16 mai dernier, le certificat de sa demande d'un brevet d'invention de dix ans pour le perfectionnement d'une machine à comprimer le gaz; …" (24th Mr. Thilorier (Adrien-Jean-Pierre) employed at the Post Office, residing in Paris, Place Vendôme, no. 21, where was delivered May 16th last, the certificate, by his request, for a patent of invention for ten years for the improvement of a machine to compress gas; … )
* In a patent (no. 2896) which was filed on May 16, 1831 and which was published in 1836, Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier, an employee of the French "Administration des postes" (i.e., Post Office) in Paris is identified explicitly as the inventor of a machine for compressing gases which in 1829 won the French Academy of Sciences' Montyon prize for mechanics. The patent describes the machine and its performance in detail. See: (French Ministry of Commerce), [https://books.google.com/books?id=KaFQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA251 "Pour le perfectionnement d'une machine à comprimer le gaz, …"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231104115/http://books.google.com/books?id=KaFQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA251 |date=2013-12-31 }} (For the improvement of a machine to compress gas, …), ''Description des Machines et Procédés consignés dans les brevets d'invention'', '''30''' : 251–267 (1836).</ref> In his experiments, he noted that when opening the lid of a large cylinder containing [[liquid carbon dioxide]], most of the liquid carbon dioxide quickly evaporated. This left only solid dry ice in the container. In 1924, Thomas B. Slate applied for a US [[patent]] to sell dry ice commercially. Subsequently, he became the first to make dry ice successful as an [[Industry (economics)|industry]].<ref name="Industry Dry ice">{{Cite journal| title = The Growing Industry-Dry-Ice| date = October 1930| doi= 10.1021/ie50250a022| last= Killeffer|first= D.H.| journal = Industrial & Engineering Chemistry| volume = 22| page = 1087| issue = 10}}</ref> In 1925, this solid form of CO<sub>2</sub> was trademarked by the DryIce Corporation of America as "Dry ice", leading to its common name.<ref name="About Dry ice">{{Cite book| title = The Trade-mark Reporter| publisher = [[International Trademark Association|United States Trademark Association]]| year = 1930| issue = v. 20| isbn = 978-1-59888-091-5}}</ref> That same year the DryIce Co. sold the substance commercially for the first time, marketing it for refrigeration purposes.<ref name="Industry Dry ice" />

==Manufacture==
[[File:Dry ice sublimation march 29 2021.webm|thumb|[[sublimation (chemistry)|Sublimation]] of dry ice when placed on water at room temperature]]

Dry ice is easily manufactured.<ref>{{cite web|publisher = Continental Carbonic Products, Inc.|title = What is Dry Ice?|url = http://www.continentalcarbonic.com/dryice/|access-date = 2009-07-26|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090727073832/http://www.continentalcarbonic.com/dryice/|archive-date = 2009-07-27}}</ref><ref name="uigi">{{cite web|publisher = Universal Industrial Gases, Inc.|title = Carbon Dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) Properties, Uses, Applications: CO<sub>2</sub> Gas and Liquid Carbon Dioxide|url = http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html|access-date = 2009-07-26|archive-date = 2021-02-13|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210213080315/http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html|url-status = live}}</ref> The most common industrial method of manufacturing dry ice starts with a gas having a high concentration of carbon dioxide. Such gases can be a [[byproduct]] of another process, such as producing [[ammonia]] from [[nitrogen]] and [[natural gas]], oil refinery activities or large-scale [[Industrial fermentation|fermentation]].<ref name = "uigi" /> Second, the carbon dioxide-rich gas is pressurized and refrigerated until it liquefies. Next, the pressure is reduced. When this occurs some liquid carbon dioxide vaporizes, causing a rapid lowering of temperature of the remaining liquid. As a result, the extreme cold causes the liquid to solidify into a snow-like consistency. Finally, the snow-like solid carbon dioxide is compressed into small pellets or larger blocks of dry ice.<ref>[http://cdn.globalccsinstitute.com/sites/default/files/publications/7276/good-plant-design-and-operation-onshore-carbon-capture-installations-and-onshore-pipelines.pdf Good plant design and operation for onshore carbon capture installations and onshore pipelines] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120624055443/http://cdn.globalccsinstitute.com/sites/default/files/publications/7276/good-plant-design-and-operation-onshore-carbon-capture-installations-and-onshore-pipelines.pdf |date=June 24, 2012 }}. The Energy Institute. London. September 2010. p.&nbsp;10</ref><ref name="hsw"/>

Dry ice is typically produced in three standard forms: large blocks, small ({{cvt|1/2|or|5/8|in|mm|disp=sqbr}} diameter) cylindrical pellets and tiny ({{convert|1/8|in|mm|disp=sqbr}} diameter) cylindrical, high surface to volume pellets that float on oil or water and do not stick to skin because of their high radii of curvature. Tiny dry ice pellets are used primarily for [[dry ice blasting]], quick freezing, fire fighting, oil solidifying and have been found to be safe for experimentation by middle school students wearing appropriate [[personal protective equipment]] such as gloves and safety glasses. A standard block weighing approximately {{cvt|30|kg}}{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} covered in a taped paper wrapping is most common. These are commonly used in shipping, because they sublime relatively slowly due to a low ratio of surface area to volume. Pellets are around {{convert|1|cm|1|abbr=on}} in diameter and can be bagged easily. This form is suited to small scale use, for example at [[grocery store]]s and [[laboratory|laboratories]] where it is stored in a thickly insulated chest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dryiceinfo.com/selling.htm|title=Dry Ice Sales – How to sell Dry Ice|work=dryiceinfo.com|access-date=6 July 2015|archive-date=13 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150713021611/http://www.dryiceinfo.com/selling.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Density of pellets is 60–70% of the density of blocks.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dacocorp.com/documents/Bonar/Polar%20Dry%20Ice%20Containers%20Brochure.pdf|title=The Polar® Insulated Container System|work=dacocorp.com|access-date=11 Jan 2020|archive-date=29 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210629110925/https://www.dacocorp.com/documents/Bonar/Polar%20Dry%20Ice%20Containers%20Brochure.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Dry ice is also produced as a byproduct of cryogenic [[air separation]], an industry primarily concerned with manufacturing extremely cold liquids such as [[liquid nitrogen]] and [[liquid oxygen]]. In this process, carbon dioxide liquefies or freezes at a far higher temperature compared to that needed to liquefy [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. The carbon dioxide must be removed during the process to prevent dry ice from fouling the equipment, and once separated can be processed into commercial dry ice in a manner similar to that described above.

==Applications==
===Commercial===
[[File:Ice cream cart - geograph.org.uk - 1485853.jpg|thumb|An ice cream cart]]

The most common use of dry ice is to preserve food,<ref name="Yaws 2001 p=125"/> using [[Refrigeration#Non-cyclic refrigeration|non-cyclic refrigeration]].

[[File:Dry ice in cup.jpg|thumb|right|Sublimation]]
[[File:Dry Ice in Water.jpg|thumb|Dry ice in water]]

It is frequently used to package items that must remain cold or frozen, such as ice cream or biological samples, in the absence of availability or practicality of [[Refrigeration|mechanical cooling]].

Dry ice is critical in the deployment of some vaccines, which require storage at ultra-cold temperatures along their supply line.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-19-vaccines-start-a-frenzy-for-dry-ice-its-like-a-herd-of-mustangs-11607007166?mod=hp_lista_pos5|title=Dry Ice Demand Swells as Covid-19 Vaccines Prepare for Deployment|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|first1=Jessie|last1=Newman|date=3 December 2020|access-date=3 December 2020|archive-date=4 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204082035/https://www.wsj.com/articles/covid-19-vaccines-start-a-frenzy-for-dry-ice-its-like-a-herd-of-mustangs-11607007166?mod=hp_lista_pos5|url-status=live}}</ref>

Dry ice can be used to [[flash freezing|flash-freeze]] food<ref name=flashfreeze>{{cite web |url=http://www.airgas.com/content/details.aspx?id=7000000000103 |title=Cool Uses for Dry Ice |publisher=Airgas.com |access-date=2009-07-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101201124708/http://www.airgas.com/content/details.aspx?id=7000000000103 |archive-date=2010-12-01 }}</ref> or laboratory biological samples,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.personal.psu.edu/dsg11/labmanual/DNA_manipulations/Comp_bact_by_RF1_RF2.htm |title=Preparing Competent E. coli with RF1/RF2 solutions |publisher=Personal.psu.edu |access-date=2009-07-25 |archive-date=2021-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210923024451/http://www.personal.psu.edu/dsg11/labmanual/DNA_manipulations/Comp_bact_by_RF1_RF2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Carbonated water|carbonate]] beverages,<ref name=flashfreeze/> make [[ice cream]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Blumenthal|first=Heston|title=How to make the best treacle tart and ice cream in the world|newspaper=The Sunday Times|date=2006-10-29|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/heston_blumenthal/article607734.ece?print=yes|access-date=2007-06-12|location=London|archive-date=2011-06-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629122523/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/food_and_drink/heston_blumenthal/article607734.ece?print=yes|url-status=dead}}</ref> solidify [[oil spills]]<ref>"Zapping Oil Spills with Dry Ice and Ingenuity" by Gordon Dillow Los Angeles Times South Bay section page 1 2/24/1994</ref> and stop [[ice sculptures]] and ice walls from melting.

Dry ice can be used to arrest and prevent insect activity in closed containers of grains and grain products, as it displaces oxygen, but does not alter the taste or quality of foods. For the same reason, it can prevent or retard food oils and fats from becoming [[Rancidity|rancid]].

When dry ice is placed in water, [[Sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]] is accelerated, and low-sinking, dense clouds of smoke-like fog are created. This is used in [[fog machine]]s, at [[theater|theatre]]s, [[haunted house attractions]], and [[nightclub]]s for dramatic effects. Unlike most artificial [[fog machine]]s, in which fog rises like smoke, fog from dry ice hovers near the ground.<ref name="hsw">{{cite web|publisher = HowStuffWorks|title = How does dry ice work?|url = http://www.howstuffworks.com/question264.htm|access-date = 2009-07-26|date = April 2000|archive-date = 2009-07-17|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090717004221/http://www.howstuffworks.com/question264.htm|url-status = live}}</ref> Dry ice is useful in theatre productions that require dense fog effects.<ref>{{Harvnb|McCarthy|1992}}</ref> The fog originates from the bulk water into which the dry ice is placed, and not from atmospheric water vapor (as is commonly assumed).<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A Molecular Explanation of How the Fog Is Produced when Dry Ice Is Placed in Water|journal = Journal of Chemical Education|date = 2015-04-14|issn = 0021-9584|pages = 643–648|volume = 92|issue = 4|doi = 10.1021/ed400754n|first1 = Thomas S.|last1 = Kuntzleman|first2 = Nathan|last2 = Ford|first3 = Jin-Hwan|last3 = No|first4 = Mark E.|last4 = Ott|bibcode = 2015JChEd..92..643K }}</ref>

It is occasionally used to freeze and remove [[warts]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Management of warts|author = Lyell A.|journal = British Medical Journal|volume = 2|issue = 5529|year = 1966|pages = 1576–9|pmid = 5926267|doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.5529.1576|pmc = 1944935}}</ref> However, [[liquid nitrogen]] performs better in this role, as it is colder, thereby requiring less time to act, and needs less pressure to store.<ref name=aa1317 /> Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.<ref name=aa1317>{{Harvnb|Goroll|Mulley|2009|page=1317}}</ref>

In [[plumbing]], dry ice is used to cut off water flow to pipes to allow repairs to be made without shutting off water mains. Pressurised liquid CO<sub>2</sub> is forced into a jacket wrapped around a pipe, which in turn causes the water inside to freeze and block the pipe. When the repairs are done, the jacket is removed and the ice plug melts, allowing the flow to resume. This technique can be used on pipes up to 4&nbsp;inches or 100&nbsp;mm in diameter.<ref name="plumbing2">{{Harvnb|Treloar|2003|p=528}}</ref>

Dry ice can be used as [[bait (luring substance)|bait]] to trap [[mosquito]]es, [[Bed bug|bedbugs]], and other insects, due to their attraction to carbon dioxide.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Comparative effectiveness of three adult mosquito sampling methods in habitats representative of four different biomes of California|vauthors=Reisen WK, Boyce K, Cummings RC, Delgado O, Gutierrez A, Meyer RP, Scott TW |journal = J Am Mosq Control Assoc|volume = 15|issue = 1|year = 1999|pages = 24–31|pmid = 10342265}}</ref>

It can be used to exterminate rodents. This is done by dropping pellets into rodent tunnels in the ground and then sealing off the entrance, thus suffocating the animals as the dry ice sublimates.<ref>{{cite news|title = City Deploys Dry Ice To Exterminate Rats|newspaper = New York Daily News|url = http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/city-deploys-dry-ice-exterminate-rats-article-1.3857504|access-date = 2018-03-06|archive-date = 2018-03-06|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180306083332/http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/city-deploys-dry-ice-exterminate-rats-article-1.3857504|url-status = live}}</ref>

Tiny dry ice pellets can be used to fight fire by both cooling fuel and suffocating the fire by excluding oxygen.<ref>"Could a Freeze Gun Put Flames on Ice" by Zantos Peabody Los Angeles Times local section B3 9/3/2002</ref>

The extreme temperature of dry ice can cause [[viscoelastic]] materials to change to [[Glass transition|glass]] phase. Thus, it is useful for removing many types of [[pressure sensitive adhesive]]s.

===Industrial===
[[File:Rubbermold.jpg|thumb|Dry ice blasting used for cleaning a [[rubber]] mold]]
[[File:Čišćenje instalacija suhim ledom.jpg|thumb|Dry ice blasting used for cleaning electrical installations]]

Dry ice can be used for loosening asphalt floor tiles or car sound deadening material, making them easy to prise off,<ref name=PM169>{{cite journal |date=February 1961 |author1=Horrell, Bill |title=Dry ice pops off Asphalt Tile |journal=Popular Mechanics |volume=115 |issue=2 |page=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R9wDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA169 |access-date=2016-09-23 |archive-date=2013-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606003724/http://books.google.com/books?id=R9wDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA169 |url-status=live }}</ref> as well as freezing water in valveless pipes to enable repair.<ref name=PM159>{{cite journal |date=July 1960 |author1=Mundis, Warren J. |title=Dry Ice as a Plumbing Aid |journal=Popular Science |volume=177 |issue=1 |page=159 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VCYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA159 |access-date=2016-09-23 |archive-date=2013-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604035651/http://books.google.com/books?id=VCYDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA159 |url-status=live }}</ref>

One of the largest mechanical uses of dry ice is [[Dry ice blasting|blast cleaning]]. Dry ice pellets are shot from a nozzle with [[compressed air]], combining the power of the speed of the pellets with the action of the sublimation. This can remove residues from industrial equipment. Examples of materials removed include ink, glue, oil, paint, mold and rubber. Dry ice blasting can replace sandblasting, steam blasting, water blasting or solvent blasting. The primary environmental residue of dry ice blasting is the sublimed CO<sub>2</sub>, thus making it a useful technique where residues from other blasting techniques are undesirable.<ref>{{cite news|last=Wolcott |first=John |title=Ice-blasting firm offers a cool way to clean up |newspaper=The Daily Herald |date=January 2008 |url=http://www.heraldbusinessjournal.com/archive/jan08/iceblasting-jan08.htm |access-date=2008-01-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109001112/http://www.heraldbusinessjournal.com/archive/jan08/iceblasting-jan08.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2008 }}</ref> Recently, blast cleaning has been introduced as a method of removing smoke damage from structures after fires.

Dry ice is also useful for the de-gassing of flammable vapours from storage tanks&nbsp;— the sublimation of dry ice pellets inside an emptied and vented tank causes an outrush of CO<sub>2</sub> that carries with it the flammable vapours.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutice.com/dry-ice/dry_ice-products.html|title=All About Ice – Ice Carvings, Vodka Luges, Crushed and Dry Ice|work=allaboutice.com|access-date=6 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718094916/http://www.allaboutice.com/dry-ice/dry_ice-products.html|archive-date=18 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The removal and fitting of [[cylinder liner]]s in large engines requires the use of dry ice to chill and thus shrink the liner so that it freely slides into the engine block. When the liner then warms up, it expands, and the resulting [[interference fit]] holds it tightly in place. Similar procedures may be used in fabricating mechanical assemblies with a high resultant strength, replacing the need for pins, keys or welds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.engineersedge.com/bearing/bushing_press_fit.htm|title=Bushing and Plain Bearings Press or Shrink Fit Design and Application – Engineers Edge|work=engineersedge.com|access-date=6 July 2015|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707024750/http://www.engineersedge.com/bearing/bushing_press_fit.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

Dry ice has found its application in construction for [[Ground freezing|freezing soil]], serving as an effective alternative to [[liquid nitrogen]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shuplik |first1=Mikhail |last2=Nikolaev |first2=Petr |date=2019 |title=Advanced ground freezing method and its applications in underground construction |url=https://www.matec-conferences.org/articles/matecconf/abs/2019/14/matecconf_gccets2018_04021/matecconf_gccets2018_04021.html |journal=MATEC Web of Conferences |language=en |volume=265 |pages=04021 |doi=10.1051/matecconf/201926504021 |issn=2261-236X}}</ref> This method reduces the soil temperature to approximately -70 to -74 °C, rapidly freezing the groundwater. As a result, the soil's strength and impermeability significantly increase,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ren |first1=Zhifeng |last2=Liu |first2=Jiankun |last3=Jiang |first3=Haiqiang |last4=Wang |first4=Enliang |date=2023-01-01 |title=Experimental study and simulation for unfrozen water and compressive strength of frozen soil based on artificial freezing technology |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X22002300 |journal=Cold Regions Science and Technology |volume=205 |pages=103711 |doi=10.1016/j.coldregions.2022.103711 |bibcode=2023CRST..20503711R |issn=0165-232X}}</ref> which is essential for the safe execution of underground construction projects.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nikolaev |first1=Petr |last2=Sedighi |first2=Majid |last3=Rajabi |first3=Hamid |last4=Pankratenko |first4=Alexander |date=2022-12-01 |title=Artificial ground freezing by solid carbon dioxide – Analysis of thermal performance |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0886779822003819 |journal=Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology |volume=130 |pages=104741 |doi=10.1016/j.tust.2022.104741 |bibcode=2022TUSTI.13004741N |issn=0886-7798}}</ref>

It is also useful as a [[cutting fluid#CO2 Coolant|cutting fluid]].

===Scientific===
In [[laboratories]], a slurry of dry ice in an [[organic solvent]] is a useful [[freezing mixture]] for cold [[chemical reactions]] and for condensing solvents in [[rotary evaporator]]s.<ref name="House">{{Harvnb|Housecroft|2001|page=410}}</ref> Dry ice and [[acetone]] forms a cold bath of {{cvt|−78|C|F K|0}}, which can be used for instance to prevent [[thermal runaway]] in a [[Swern oxidation]].

The process of [[cloud seeding|altering cloud precipitation]] can be done with the use of dry ice.<ref name=Keyescs /> It was widely used in experiments in the US in the 1950s and early 1960s before it was replaced by [[silver iodide]].<ref name=Keyescs /> Dry ice has the advantage of being relatively cheap and completely non-toxic.<ref name=Keyescs /> Its main drawback is the need to be delivered directly into the [[supercooled]] region of clouds being seeded.<ref name=Keyescs>{{Harvnb|Keyes|2006|page=83}}</ref>

===Dry ice bombs===
{{Main|Dry ice bomb}}
[[File:Dry Ice Bomb.jpg|thumb|[[Dry ice bomb]]|right]]

A "dry ice bomb" is a balloon-like device using dry ice in a sealed container such as a [[plastic bottle]]. Water is usually added to accelerate the sublimation of the dry ice. As the dry ice [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimes]], pressure increases, causing the bottle to burst with a loud noise. The screw cap can be replaced with a rubber stopper to make a [[water rocket]].

The dry ice bomb device was featured on ''[[MythBusters]]'', episode 57 [[MythBusters (2006 season)#Episode 57 .E2.80.93 .22Diet Coke and Mentos.22|Mentos and Soda]], which first aired on August 9, 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mythbustersresults.com/episode57|title=Mythbusters episode 57|publisher=mythbustersresults.com|access-date=2009-07-31|archive-date=2009-06-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090627053916/http://mythbustersresults.com/episode57|url-status=live}}</ref> It was also featured in an episode of ''[[Time Warp (TV series)|Time Warp]]'', as well as in an episode of ''[[Archer (2009 TV series)|Archer]]''.

==Extraterrestrial occurrence==
Following the Mars flyby of the [[Mariner 4]] spacecraft in 1966, scientists concluded that [[Martian polar ice caps|Mars' polar caps]] consist entirely of dry ice.<ref name="NGMars">{{Cite book|title = Mars Poles Covered by Water Ice, Research Shows|publisher = [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]|date = 13 February 2003|access-date = 2009-07-26|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0213_030213_marspoles.html|archive-date = 2009-07-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090701045810/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0213_030213_marspoles.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> However, findings made in 2003 by researchers at the [[California Institute of Technology]] have shown that Mars' polar caps are almost completely made of water ice, and that dry ice only forms a thin surface layer that thickens and thins seasonally.<ref name="NGMars"/><ref name="ScienceJournal">{{Cite journal|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|date=2003-02-14|volume=299|issue=5609|doi=10.1126/science.1080148|title=A Sublimation Model for Martian South Polar Ice Features|last1=Byrne|first1=S.|pages=1051–1053|pmid=12586939|last2=Ingersoll|first2=AP|s2cid=7819614|bibcode = 2003Sci...299.1051B}}</ref> A phenomenon named dry ice storms was proposed to occur over the polar regions of Mars. They are comparable to Earth's thunderstorms, with crystalline CO<sub>2</sub> taking the place of water in the clouds.<ref name="NGMars2">{{Cite book|title = Dry Ice Storms May Pelt Martian Poles, Experts Say|publisher = [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]|date = 19 December 2005|access-date = 2009-07-26|url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1219_051219_mars_ice.html|archive-date = 2010-09-04|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100904165650/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1219_051219_mars_ice.html|url-status = dead}}</ref> Dry ice is also proposed as a mechanism for the [[geysers on Mars]].<ref name=LPS2006>{{Cite web| title=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVII (2006) – Observation of the Martian Cryptic Region from Mars Orbiter Camera| editor1-first=J. J. |editor1-last=Jian| editor2-first=W. H. |editor2-last=Ip| date=2006| url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/1313.pdf| access-date=4 September 2009| archive-date=4 August 2020| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804004623/https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/1313.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2012, the [[European Space Agency]]'s [[Venus Express]] probe detected a cold layer in the atmosphere of [[Venus]] where temperatures are close to the triple point of carbon dioxide and it is possible that flakes of dry ice precipitate.<ref>[http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Venus_Express/A_curious_cold_layer_in_the_atmosphere_of_Venus "A curious cold layer in the atmosphere of Venus"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223190434/http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Venus_Express/A_curious_cold_layer_in_the_atmosphere_of_Venus |date=2015-12-23 }}. European Space Agency (1 October 2012).</ref>

Observations from the [[Uranus]] flyby by ''[[Voyager 2]]'' indicates that dry ice is present on the surface of its large moons [[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]],<ref name="Grundy Young et al. 2006">{{cite journal| doi = 10.1016/j.icarus.2006.04.016| last1 = Grundy| first1 = W. M.| last2 = Young| first2 = L. A.| last3 = Spencer| first3 = J. R.| last4 = Johnson| first4 = R. E.| last5 = Young| first5 = E. F.| last6 = Buie| first6 = M. W.| date=October 2006 | title = Distributions of H<sub>2</sub>O and CO<sub>2</sub> ices on Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon from IRTF/SpeX observations| journal = Icarus| volume = 184| issue = 2| pages = 543–555| arxiv = 0704.1525| bibcode = 2006Icar..184..543G| s2cid = 12105236| ref = {{sfnRef|Grundy Young et al.|2006}}}}</ref> [[Umbriel]]<ref name="Grundy Young et al. 2006" /> and [[Titania (moon)|Titania]].<ref name="Grundy Young et al. 2006" /> Scientists speculate that the magnetic field of Uranus contributes to the generation of CO<sub>2</sub> ice on the surfaces of its moons.<ref name="CartwrightEmery2015">{{cite journal |last1=Cartwright |first1=R. J. |last2=Emery |first2=J. P. |last3=Rivkin |first3=A. S. |last4=Trilling |first4=D. E. |last5=Pinilla-Alonso|first5=N.|title=Distribution of {{CO2}} ice on the large moons of Uranus and evidence for compositional stratification of their near-surfaces |journal=Icarus |volume=257 |year=2015 |pages=428–456 |issn=0019-1035 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2015.05.020 |arxiv=1506.04673|bibcode=2015Icar..257..428C|s2cid=117850580}}</ref> ''Voyager 2'' observations of Neptune's moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]] suggested the presence of dry ice on the surface, though followup observations indicate that the carbon ices on the surface are carbon monoxide but that the moon's crust is composed of a significant quantity of dry ice.<ref name="Lellouchde Bergh2010">{{cite journal|last1=Lellouch|first1=E.|last2=de Bergh |first2=C. |last3=Sicardy |first3=B. |last4=Ferron |first4=S. |last5=Käufl|first5=H.-U.|title=Detection of CO in Triton's atmosphere and the nature of surface-atmosphere interactions|journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics|volume=512|year=2010|pages=L8|issn=0004-6361|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201014339 |arxiv=1003.2866 |bibcode=2010A&A...512L...8L |s2cid=58889896}}</ref>

==Safety==
{{further|Carbon dioxide#Toxicity}}
{{chembox
|container_only=yes
|Section3={{Chembox Hazards
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS04}}
| GHSSignalWord = warning
| HPhrases      = {{HPhrases|H280}}
| PPhrases      = {{PPhrases|P403}}
| GHS_ref       = <ref>GHS: [https://gestis.dguv.de/data?name=001120 GESTIS 001120] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211226010211/https://gestis.dguv.de/data?name=001120 |date=2021-12-26 }}</ref>
}}}}
Prolonged exposure to dry ice can cause severe skin damage through [[frostbite]], and the [[fog]] produced may also hinder attempts to withdraw from contact in a safe manner. Because it sublimes into large quantities of carbon dioxide gas, which could pose a danger of [[hypercapnia]], dry ice should only be exposed to open air in a well-ventilated environment.<ref name=PM169 /> For this reason, in the context of laboratory safety dry ice is assigned label precaution {{GHS phrases/inline|P403}}<!--Template adds its own full stop--> Industrial dry ice may contain contaminants that make it unsafe for direct contact with food.<ref>{{cite web |last=dryicepk |date=16 March 2023 |title=Dry Ice: Uses, Hazards, and Safety Precautions |url=https://dryice.pk/dry-ice-uses-safety-precautions/ |access-date=11 April 2023 |website=Dry Ice Pakistan |publisher=[[Emergency Medicine]]}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=March 2020}} Tiny dry ice pellets used in dry ice blast cleaning do not contain oily residues.

Dry ice is assigned a [[UN number]], a code for hazardous substances: [[List of UN numbers 1801 to 1900|UN 1845]].<ref name="Lion Technology-2019">{{Cite web |url=https://www.lion.com/Lion-News/October-2019/How-to-Ship-Dry-Ice-by-Air-with | title=How to Ship Dry Ice by Air |publisher=Lion Technology |date=2019-10-08 |access-date=2022-11-30}}</ref> Dry ice is not classified as a dangerous substance by the [[CLP Regulation|European Union]], or as a hazardous material by the [[United States Department of Transportation]] for ground transportation.<ref name="32008R1272">{{Cite web |title=Regulation (EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008R1272:EN:NOT |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805181030/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32008R1272:en:NOT |archive-date=2009-08-05 |access-date=2009-07-31}}</ref><ref name="Lion Technology-2019" /> However, in the US, it is regulated as a dangerous good when shipped by air or water. [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA) regulations require specific diamond-shaped black-and white labelling to be placed on the package. The package must have adequate ventilation so that it will not rupture from pressure in the event that the Dry Ice begins to sublime in the packaging.<ref name="Lion Technology-2019" /> The [[Federal Aviation Administration]] in the US allows airline passengers to carry up to {{cvt|2.5|kg}} per person either as [[checked baggage]] or carry-on baggage, when used to refrigerate perishables.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/hazmat_safety/more_info/?hazmat=13|title=Hazardous Materials Information for Passengers|access-date=2009-07-26|publisher=[[Federal Aviation Administration]]|archive-date=2013-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220192133/http://www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/hazmat_safety/more_info/?hazmat=13|url-status=live}}</ref>

At least one person has been killed by carbon dioxide gas subliming off dry ice in coolers placed in a car.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livescience.com/63241-dry-ice-death.html |title=A Woman Died from Dry Ice Fumes. Here's How It Can Happen |first=Rachael |last=Rettner
|work=Live Science |date=August 2, 2018 |access-date=20 August 2023}}</ref> In 2020, three people were killed at a party in Moscow after 25&nbsp;kg of dry ice was dumped in a pool; carbon dioxide is heavier than air, and so can linger near the ground, just above water level.<ref>{{cite web |title=Three die in dry-ice incident at Moscow pool party |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51680049 |website=BBC News |access-date=20 February 2023 |date=29 February 2020}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Dry ice pellet subliming in water.jpg|Dry ice pellet subliming in water, releasing thick white fog
File:UN1845 Dry Ice Label.svg|A [[List of UN numbers 1801 to 1900|UN 1845 label]] for dry ice
</gallery>

===Drink===
Dry ice is sometimes used to give a fog effect to [[cocktail]]s. One bar patron who accidentally ingested pellets from a drink suffered severe burns to his [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], and [[duodenum]], causing permanent problems with eating.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.irwinmitchell.com/news-and-insights/newsandmedia/2017/september/specialist-lawyers-instructed-after-dry-ice-cocktail-leaves-man-with-severe-stomach-burns-jq-624530 |title=Specialist Public Health Lawyers Instructed After Dry Ice Cocktail Drank<!--sic: should be 'drunk'--> at The Alchemist 'Leaves Man With Severe Stomach Burns' |date=19 September 2017 |publisher=Irwin Mitchell |access-date=20 August 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.giejournal.org/article/S0016-5107(04)00183-X/fulltext |title=Gastric hypothermic injury caused by accidental ingestion of dry ice: endoscopic features |first1=Wen-Chieh |last1=Li |first2=Sheung-Fat |last2=Ko |first3=Chia-Chang |last3=Tsai |first4=Chin-Tien |last4=Su |first5=Chao-Cheng |last5=Huang |first6=Mao-Meng |last6=Tiao |journal=Gastrointestinal Endoscopy |date=2004 |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=737–738 |doi=10.1016/S0016-5107(04)00183-X |pmid=15114328 |access-date=20 August 2023}}</ref> Rapid sublimation could cause gas buildup that ruptures digestive organs or suffocation. Products that contain dry ice and prevent it from being accidentally ingested eliminate these risks while producing the desired fog effect.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.chillistick.com/dry-ice-faqs.html |title=Chillistick – Frequently Asked Questions |website=Chillistick |access-date=20 August 2023}}</ref>

== Footnotes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
* {{Cite journal |title= Thilyorier and the First Solidification of a "Permanent" Gas (1835) |last1= Duane |first1=H. D. Roller |last2=Thilorier |first2=M. |journal= Isis |volume= 43 |issue= 2 |year= 1952 |pages= 109–113 |doi= 10.1086/349402 |jstor= 227174|s2cid= 144091865 }}
* {{Cite book |title=Primary Care Medicine: Office evaluation and management of the adult patient |last1=Goroll |first1=Allan H |last2=Mulley|first2=Albert G |year=2009 |publisher= Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn= 978-0-7817-7513-7 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Häring |first=Heinz-Wolfgang |title=Industrial Gases Processing |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=978-3-527-31685-4 |year=2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93SPB4v1Lk8C |access-date=2009-07-31 |ref=CITEREFH.C3.A4ring2008 |others=Christine Ahner }}{{Dead link|date=December 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Housecroft |first1=Catherine |last2= Sharpe |first2=Alan G |title= Inorganic chemistry |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-582-31080-3 |publisher= Prentice Hall |location= Harlow |page=410 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=3sy4ZAP4EGAC&pg=PA410 |access-date= 2009-07-31 |ref=CITEREFHousecroft2001}}
* {{Cite book |title=Guidelines for Cloud Seeding to Augment Precipitation |last=Keyes |first=Conrad G |series= American Society of Civil Engineers |year=2006 |publisher= ASCE Publications |isbn= 978-0-7844-0819-3 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Verma |first1=N. K. |last2=Khanna |first2=S. K. |last3= Kapila |first3=B. |title= Comprehensive Chemistry for Class XI |location= New Delhi |publisher= Laxmi Publications |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qQQcOhxHdxoC&q=%22dry+ice%22+%22non-polar%22&pg=PA161 |access-date= 2009-07-31 |year=2008 |isbn= 978-81-7008-596-6 }}
* {{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Robert E. |title= Secrets of Hollywood Special Effects |year=1992 |publisher= Focal Press |location= Boston |isbn=978-0-240-80108-7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=B4applRToVQC }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mitra |first= Somenath |title= Sample Preparation Techniques in Analytical Chemistry |publisher= Wiley-IEEE |date=April 2004 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yk1RZ9HD6hcC |isbn= 978-0-471-32845-2 |access-date= 2009-07-31}}
* {{Cite book |last= Treloar |first= Roy D. |title= Plumbing Encyclopaedia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CEyW2EkaogEC&pg=PA175 |access-date= 2009-07-31 |edition=3rd |year = 2003 |publisher= Wiley-Blackwell |isbn= 978-1-4051-0613-9 |page=175 }}
* {{Cite book |last= Yaws |first= Carl |title= Matheson Gas Data Book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Sfvbgvu9OQMC |access-date= 2009-07-27 |edition= 7th |year= 2001 |publisher= McGraw-Hill Professional |id= 982 pages |isbn= 978-0-07-135854-5 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Dry ice}}

{{Authority control}}

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[[Category:Brands that became generic]]
[[Category:Carbon dioxide]]
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[[Category:Ice]]
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