View source for Fijian language

{{distinguish|Fujian}}
{{Short description|Austronesian language of Fiji}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Fijian
| nativename       = {{lang|fj|Vosa Vaka-Viti}}
| states           = [[Fiji]]
| ethnicity        = [[Fijians]]
| speakers         = 339,210
| date             = 1996 census
| ref              = e18
| speakers2        = 320,000 second-language users (1991)
| familycolor      = Austronesian
| fam1             = [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]
| fam2             = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3             = [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
| fam4             = [[Central Pacific languages|Central Pacific]]
| fam5             = [[East Fijian – Polynesian languages|East Fijian – Polynesian]]
| fam6             = [[East Fijian languages|East Fijian]]
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]]-based
| nation           = {{FIJ}}
| iso1             = fj
| iso2             = fij
| iso3             = fij
| glotto           = fiji1243
| glottorefname    = Fijian
| notice           = IPA
| dia1             = [[Pidgin Fijian]]
| map           = File:Ethnic_Map_of_Fiji.png
| mapcaption          = Fiji ethnic map (2017 census) green is for Fijian
| lingua           = 39-BBA-a
| linguarefname    = Bau-Fiji
}}
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Mila speaking Fijian.webm|thumb|A Fijian speaker, recorded in [[Fiji]].]]
'''Fijian''' (''{{lang|fj|Na vosa vaka-Viti}}'') is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] language of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian family]] spoken by some 350,000–450,000 ethnic [[Fijians]] as a native language. The [[1997 Constitution of Fiji#New Constitution for 2013|2013 Constitution]] established Fijian as an official [[languages of Fiji|language of Fiji]], along with [[English language|English]] and [[Fiji Hindi]] and there is discussion about establishing it as the "[[national language]]". Fijian is a [[verb–object–subject|VOS]] language.<ref>{{WALS|fj}}</ref>

Standard Fijian is based on the [[Bau (island)#Language|Bau]] dialect, which is an [[East Fijian language]].
[[Pidgin Fijian|A pidginized form]] is used by many [[Indo-Fijians]] and [[Chinese in Fiji|Chinese]] on the islands, while [[Pidgin Hindustani]] is used by many rural ethnic [[Fijians]] and Chinese in areas dominated by Indo-Fijians.

== History ==
{{more sources needed section|date=November 2023}}
=== History of the language ===
The Fijian language was introduced to Fiji {{circa}} 3500 years ago by the islands' first settlers. For millennia, it was the only spoken language in Fiji. In 1835, Methodist missionaries from Australia worked in Fiji to develop a written form of the language. By 1840, they had already developed a writing system, and had published various books on the different dialects of the language. After the independence of Fiji in 1970, Fijian has been used in radio, television, books, and periodicals, and has been taught in schools.

=== National language debate ===
{{update section|date=November 2023}}

In May and June of 2005, several prominent Fijians sought to promote the status of the Fijian language. Fiji had no official language before the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|1997 Constitution]], which made the Fijian language co-official with [[English language|English]] and [[Fiji Hindi]]; however, it was not required to be taught in schools. The minister of education, [[Ro Teimumu Kepa]], has also supported appeals to Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs [[Ovini Bokini|Ratu Ovini Bokini]]. Similar appeals have been made by [[Misiwini Qereqeretabua]], Director of the Institute of Language and Culture, and by [[Apolonia Tamata]], a linguistics professor at the [[University of the South Pacific]] in Suva. They have stated that recognition of the Fijian language is essential for the basic identity of the nation and acts as a unifying factor for the multicultural society of Fiji.

[[Mahendra Chaudhry]], the leader of the [[Fiji Labour Party]], also supported the cause to make Fijian a national language and a compulsory subject in schools with the same status as Fiji Hindi, a position echoed by [[Krishna Vilas]] of the National Reconciliation Committee.

Since 2013, when a new constitution was adopted, Fijian is established as an official language of Fiji alongside Fiji Hindi and English.

== Phonology ==
The [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s of Fijian are as shown in the following table:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Fijian consonant phonemes
! colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! scope="col" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! scope="col" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! scope="col" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! scope="col" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! scope="row" colspan="2" | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPAlink|m}}
| {{IPAlink|n}}
|
| {{IPAlink|ŋ}}
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! scope="row" | <small>voiceless</small>
| ({{IPAlink|p}})
| {{IPAlink|t}}
| ({{IPAlink|tʃ}})
| {{IPAlink|k}}
| ({{IPAlink|ʔ}})
|-
! scope="row" | <small>[[Prenasalization|prenasalized]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|ᵐb}}
| {{IPAlink|ⁿd}}
| ({{IPAlink|ⁿdʒ}})
| {{IPAlink|ᵑɡ}}
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! scope="row" | <small>voiceless</small>
| ({{IPAlink|f}})
| {{IPAlink|s}}
|
| ({{IPAlink|x}})
| ({{IPAlink|h}})
|-
! scope="row" | <small>[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPAlink|β}}
| {{IPAlink|ð}}
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
! scope="row" | <small>plain</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|r}}
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row" | <small>prenasalized</small>
|
| {{IPAlink|ᶯɖʳ}}
|
|
|
|-
! scope="row" colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|  {{IPAlink|w}}
|  {{IPAlink|l}} 
|  {{IPAlink|j}}
| 
| 
|}

The consonant written {{angle bracket|dr}} has been described as a [[prenasalized]] trill {{IPAblink|ⁿr}} or [[trilled affricate]] {{IPAblink|ⁿdr}}. However, it is only rarely pronounced with a trilled release; the primary feature distinguishing it from {{angle bracket|d}} is that it is [[postalveolar]], {{IPA|[ɳɖ]}}, rather than dental/alveolar.<ref>{{SOWL|122, 131}} The authors use the transcription {{angle bracket|nḍ}}, where the sub-dot is their convention for a postalveolar stop that is not prototypically retroflex.</ref>

The sounds {{IPAblink|p}} and {{IPAblink|f}} occur only in [[loanword]]s from other languages. The sounds {{IPAblink|x}} and {{IPAblink|h}} only occur for speakers from certain regions of the country.

The sounds {{IPAblink|tʃ}} and {{IPAblink|ⁿdʒ}} occur as allophones of {{IPAslink|t}} and {{IPAslink|ⁿd}}.

The glottal stop {{IPAslink|ʔ}} occurs in the Boumaa Fijian used to illustrate this article, but is not found in the standard language. It descends from an earlier {{IPAslink|k}} sound in most Fijian dialects.

Note the difference in [[place of articulation]] between the voiced-voiceless fricative pairs: [[Bilabial consonant|bilabial]] {{IPAblink|β}} vs. [[Labiodental consonant|labiodental]] {{IPAblink|f}}, and [[Dental consonant|dental]] {{IPAblink|ð}} vs. [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]] {{IPAblink|s}}.

The [[vowel]] phonemes are:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ [[Monophthong]]s
! rowspan="2" |
! scope="col" colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! scope="col" colspan="2" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! scope="col" colspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! scope="col" | <small>short</small>
! scope="col" | <small>long</small>
! scope="col" | <small>short</small>
! scope="col" | <small>long</small>
! scope="col" | <small>short</small>
! scope="col" | <small>long</small>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPAlink|i}}
| {{IPAlink|iː}}
| ||
| {{IPAlink|u}}
| {{IPAlink|uː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPAlink|e}}
| {{IPAlink|eː}}
| ||
| {{IPAlink|o}}
| {{IPAlink|oː}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Open vowel|Open]]
| ||
| {{IPAlink|a}}
| {{IPAlink|aː}}
| ||
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ [[Falling diphthong]]s
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Second component
|-
! scope="col" | {{IPAslink|i}}
! scope="col" | {{IPAslink|u}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" | First<br/>component
! scope="row" | {{IPAslink|e}}
| {{IPAlink|ei̯}}
| {{IPAlink|eu̯}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{IPAslink|o}}
| {{IPAlink|oi̯}}
| {{IPAlink|ou̯}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{IPAslink|a}}
| {{IPAlink|ai̯}}
| {{IPAlink|au̯}}
|}
In addition, there is the rising diphthong {{IPAslink|i̯u}}.

[[Syllable]]s can consist of a consonant followed by a vowel (CV) or a single vowel (V).{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=15}}
[[stress (linguistics)|Word stress]] is based on [[mora (linguistics)|moras]]: a short vowel is one mora, diphthongs and long vowels are two morae. Primary stress is on the penultimate mora of the phonological word. That is, if the last syllable of a word is short, then the penultimate syllable will be stressed, while if the last syllable contains either a long vowel or a diphthong, then it receives primary stress. Stress is not lexical and can shift when suffixes are attached to the [[root (linguistics)|root]].
Examples:
*Stress on the penultimate syllable (final short vowel): {{lang|fj|síga}}, {{gloss|day}};
*Stress on the final syllable (diphthong): {{lang|fj|cauravóu}}, {{gloss|youth}} (the stress extends over the whole diphthong).
*Stress shift: {{lang|fj|cábe}}, {{gloss|kick}} → {{lang|fj|cabé-ta}}, {{gloss|kick-{{gcl|TR}}}}{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=17}}

== Orthography ==
The Fijian alphabet is based on the [[Latin script]] and consists of the following letters. There is almost a one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Alphabet
|-
! Capital !! Lowercase !! IPA !! Others
|-
| {{lang|fj|A}} || {{lang|fj|a}} || {{IPAblink|a}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|B}} || {{lang|fj|b}} || {{IPAblink|ᵐb}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|C}} || {{lang|fj|c}} || {{IPAblink|ð}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|D}} || {{lang|fj|d}} || {{IPAblink|ⁿd}} ||{{lang|fj|di}} {{IPA|[ⁿdʒi]}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|E}} || {{lang|fj|e}} || {{IPAblink|ɛ}}~{{IPAblink|e}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|F}} || {{lang|fj|f}} || {{IPAblink|f}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|G}} || {{lang|fj|g}} || {{IPAblink|ŋ}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|H}} || {{lang|fj|h}} || {{IPAblink|h}}~{{IPAblink|x}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|I}} || {{lang|fj|i}} || {{IPAblink|i}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|J}} || {{lang|fj|j}} || {{IPAblink|tʃ}}~{{IPAblink|ⁿdʒ}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|K}} || {{lang|fj|k}} || {{IPAblink|k}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|L}} || {{lang|fj|l}} || {{IPAblink|l}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|M}} || {{lang|fj|m}} || {{IPAblink|m}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|N}} || {{lang|fj|n}} || {{IPAblink|n}} || {{lang|fj|nr}} {{IPAblink|ᶯɖ}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|O}} || {{lang|fj|o}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}}~{{IPAblink|o}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|P}} || {{lang|fj|p}} || {{IPAblink|p}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|Q}} || {{lang|fj|q}} || {{IPAblink|ᵑɡ}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|R}} || {{lang|fj|r}} || {{IPAblink|r}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|S}} || {{lang|fj|s}} || {{IPAblink|s}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|T}} || {{lang|fj|t}} || {{IPAblink|t}} || {{lang|fj|ti}} {{IPA|[tʃi]}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|U}} || {{lang|fj|u}} || {{IPAblink|u}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|V}} || {{lang|fj|v}} || {{IPAblink|β}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|W}} || {{lang|fj|w}} || {{IPAblink|ɰ}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|Y}} || {{lang|fj|y}} || {{IPAblink|j}}~{{IPAblink|∅}} ||
|-
| {{lang|fj|Z}} || {{lang|fj|z}} || {{IPAblink|ⁿdʒ}} ||
|}

In the 1980s, scholars compiling a dictionary added several more consonants and a few consonant clusters to the alphabet. These newcomers were necessary to handle words entering Standard Fijian from not only English, but from other Fijian languages or dialects as well. These are the most important additions: {{angbr|z}} {{IPAblink|ⁿdʒ}}, as in {{angbr|ziza}} {{gloss|ginger}} and {{angbr|h}} {{IPAblink|h}}, as in {{angbr|haya}} {{gloss|hire}}.{{sfn|Schütz|2003}}

For phonological reasons {{angbr|ti}} and {{angbr|di}} are pronounced {{IPA|[tʃi]}}, {{IPA|[ⁿdʒi]}} rather than {{IPA|[ti]}}, {{IPA|[ⁿdi]}} (cf. Japanese [[Chi (kana)|chi kana]], or in standard [[Brazilian Portuguese#Consonants|Brazilian Portuguese]]). Hence, the Fijian name for Fiji, {{angbr|Viti}}, from an allophonic pronunciation of {{IPA|[βitʃi]}} as {{IPA|[ɸidʒi]}}.

In addition, the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{angbr|dr}} stands for [[retroflex]] {{IPAblink|ᶯɖ}}, or a prenasalized trill {{IPA|[<sup>ɳɖ</sup>r]}} in careful pronunciation, or more commonly for some people and in some dialects.

The vowel letters {{angbr|a e i o u}} have roughly their IPA values, {{IPA|[a ɛ~e i ɔ~o u]}}.  The [[vowel length]] contrast is not usually indicated in writing, except in dictionaries and textbooks for learners of the language, where it is indicated by a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] over the vowel in question; Dixon, in the work cited below, doubles all long vowels in his spelling system. Diphthongs are {{angbr|ai au ei eu oi ou iu}}, pronounced {{IPA|[ɛi̯ ɔu̯ ei̯ eu̯ oi̯ ou̯ i̯u]}}.

== Morpho-syntax ==
:''Note: the examples in this section are from Boumaa dialect. It is not Standard Fijian, which is based on the Bauan dialect.''

=== Negation ===
In order to [[negation (grammar)|negate]] a phrase or clause in Fijian, certain verbs are used to create this distinction. These verbs of negation are known as semi-auxiliary verbs. Semi-auxiliary verbs fulfil the functions of main verbs (in terms of syntactic form and pattern) and have a NP or complement clause as their subject{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=279}} (complements clauses within negation are introduced by relators {{lang|fj|ni}} (which refers to an event, which is generally a non-specific unit) or {{lang|fj|me}} (which refers is translated as "should", referring to the event within the complement clause should occur)).{{sfn|Dixon|1988|pp=268-271}} Within a complement clause, the semi-auxiliary verb qualifies the predicate.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=279}}

==== Semi-auxiliary verbs ====
One semi-auxiliary verb used to express negation in Fijian is {{lang|fj|sega}}. This semi-auxiliary can be translated as either "there are no-" or "it is not the case that", depending on the subject it relates to.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} In terms of numerical expression, {{lang|fj|sega}} is also used to express the quantity "none".{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=141}} This negator can be used in almost all situations, with the exception of the imperative or in a {{lang|fj|me}} (classifier) clauses.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} When {{lang|fj|sega}} takes a NP as its subject, the meaning "there are no-" is assumed:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|e sega a {{saltillo}}olii (i+na {{saltillo}}oro yai)
|3SG not ART dog in+ART village this
|"there are no dogs (in this village)"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}}}}

Predicate clauses can also be negated in Fijian with the semi-auxiliary verb {{lang|fj|sega}}. This can only be completed when the predicate is placed into a complement clause.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} The subject of {{lang|fj|sega}} must also be {{lang|fj|ni}}, which introduces the complement clause. It is then translated as "it is not the case that (predicate clause)".{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} An example of this construction is shown here:

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|e sega [ni la{{saltillo}}o o Jone]
|3SG not that go ART John
|"John is not going (lit: it is not  the case that John is going)"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}}}}
 
Hence, the only way a verb (which is generally the head of a predicate phrase) can be negated in Fijian is when it forms part of the [{{lang|fj|e sega ni}} VERB] construction.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} However, in Fijian the head of a predicate phrase may belong to almost any word class. If another word (e.g. a noun) is used, the structure of negation alters.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}} This distinction can be shown through diverse examples of the negating NPs in Fijian. The below examples show the difference between a noun as the head of a NP and a noun as the head of a predicate in a complement clause, within negation:

;NP as subject of {{lang|fj|sega}}
{{interlinear|number=(3)
|e sega a {{saltillo}}olii
|3SG not ART dog
|"there is no dog"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}}}}

;{{lang|fj|Ni}} as the subject of {{lang|fj|sega}}
{{interlinear|number=(4)
|e sega ni {{saltillo}}olii
|3SG not that dog
|"it isn't a dog (it may be a cat)"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=40}}}}

Additionally, {{lang|fj|sega}} can also work with relator {{lang|fj|se}} which introduces interrogative clauses.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=270}} This combination creates a form translatable as "or not": 

{{interlinear|number=(5)
| au tovele-a se {{saltillo}}ana vina{{saltillo}}a a {{saltillo}}aa.{{saltillo}}ana yai (se sega)
| 1SG test-TR whether eat good ART food this or not
|"I'll test whether this food tastes good or not"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=271}}}}

Another common negator is {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} or {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}}, which is translatable as "don't, not".{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=279}} Differently to {{lang|fj|sega}}, this semi-auxiliary verb is used for imperatives and in {{lang|fj|me}} clauses. Therefore, these semi-auxiliaries are fixed, and cannot be used interchangeably.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=281}} {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}Ua}} and {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} have the same meaning, however {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} may be more intense; in most instances either semi-auxiliary verb can be used.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=281}} {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} can take a NP as its subject, but most commonly takes the {{lang|fj|ni}} complement as a subject,{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=282}} which is demonstrated below:

{{interlinear|number=(6)
| e aa taqo.-ma{{saltillo}}ini au o Jone me+u {{saltillo}}ua ni lau-.vacu
| 3SG PAST defend-TR 1SG ART Person should+1SG not that PASS-punch
|"John defended me from being  punched (lit: that I should not be punched)"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=282}}}}

An example of {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} used in imperative structure can be seen here:

{{interlinear|number=(7)
| au saa vei-.vutuni.-ta{{saltillo}}ina sara me+u saa waa{{saltillo}}ua ni va{{saltillo}}a-.yaco-ra tale a ca{{saltillo}}a.ca{{saltillo}}a yai i+na siga.tabu
| 1SG ASP repent-TR MODIF should+1SG ASP not INT make-happen-TR again ART REDUP-do INT on+ART Sunday
|"I repented (of hunting pigs on the sabbath) so that I won't ever again do this activity on Sunday"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=294}}}}

In the case of pronouns, they can only be negated when they form part of the NP, when acting as the predicate head.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=67}} Therefore, pronouns cannot be the NP subject of semi-auxiliary verbs {{lang|fj|sega}} or {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} in the way that general nouns can.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=67}}

===== Combining semi-auxiliary verbs =====
{{lang|fj|Sega}} and {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} can be combined with other auxiliary verbs to produce diverse constructions.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=284}} Both {{lang|fj|sega}} and {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}} can connect with semi-auxiliary {{lang|fj|rawa}} {{gloss|can}} to negate the concept of possibility which is attached to the verb {{gloss|can}} (resulting in constructions such as {{gloss|can't}} and {{gloss|shouldn't}}).{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=285}}

==== Modifiers in negation ====
Two main modifiers, {{lang|fj|soti}} {{gloss|a lot}} and {{lang|fj|sara}} {{gloss|very; (go) right on, immediately}} play key roles in negation in Fijian, and work in conjunction with semi-auxiliary verbs. {{lang|fj|Soti}} is added after negators {{lang|fj|sega}} and {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}}, and functions as an intensity marker.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=96}}  The construction {{lang|fj|sega soti}} is translatable as {{gloss|not a lot of, not very}}. The {{lang|fj|sega soti}} construction requires an adjective (or an adverb which results from an adjective), and must take {{lang|fj|ni}} (complement clause) as its subject in order to function.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=96}} {{lang|fj|Soti}} can be found in position immediately after {{lang|fj|sega}}, but may also be found after the {{lang|fj|ni}} relator without changing the meaning of the phrase.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=97}} The primary construction is shown below:

{{interlinear|number=(8)
|au sega soti ni vu{{saltillo}}u me tautauvata {{saltillo}}ei Sepo
|1SG not INT SUB clever should same with Person
|"I'm not as clever as Sepo (lit: I  am not clever, to be the same as Sepo)"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=96}}}}

Similarly, to {{lang|fj|soti}}, the modifier {{lang|fj|sara}} {{gloss|very; (go) right on, immediately}} can also be used in conjunction with {{lang|fj|sega}} and {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ua}} ~ {{lang|fj|waa{{saltillo}}ua}}. This combination is used to stress the negative sense and aspect of a phrase.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=97}}

{{interlinear|number=(9)
|{{saltillo}}ua ni la{{saltillo}}i taaoo tale i Viidawa, la{{saltillo}}o sara i {{saltillo}}Orovou!
|don't INT go held-up again AT Viidawa go INT to {{saltillo}}Orovou
|"don't get held up at Viidawa (a  place en route, where there may be some enticing event in progress), go straight on to {{saltillo}}Orovou!"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=97}}}}

=== Pronouns and person markers ===
The pronominal system of Fijian is remarkably rich. Like many other languages, it recognises three [[grammatical person|persons]]; first person (speaker),
second person (addressee), and third person (all other). There is no distinction between human, non-human, animate, or inanimate.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=52}} 
Four numbers are represented; singular, [[Grammatical number#Dual|dual]], [[Grammatical number#Paucal|paucal]], and plural&mdash;'paucal' refers to more than two people who have some relationship, as a family or work group; if none, 'plural' is used.  Like many other Oceanic languages, Fijian pronouns are marked for [[grammatical number|number]] and [[clusivity]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://wals.info/feature/39A#3/-9.45/182.72|title = WALS Online – Feature 39A: Inclusive/Exclusive Distinction in Independent Pronouns|date = 2013|access-date = May 4, 2015|website = The World Atlas of Language Structures Online|publisher = Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.|last = Cysouw|first = Michael}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+Boumaa Fijian pronouns{{sfn|Dixon|1988|pp=54–55}}
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" |Person
! colspan="4" |Number
|-
!singular
!dual
!paucal
!plural
|-
! rowspan="3" |1INCL
!subject
| rowspan="3" |
|{{lang|fj|(e)taru}}
|{{lang|fj|tou}}
|{{lang|fj|(e)ta}}
|-
!object
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eetaru}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}etatou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eta}}
|-
!cardinal
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eetaru}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}etatou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eta}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |1EXCL
!subject
|{{lang|fj|au}} ~ {{lang|fj|u}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eirau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eitou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eimami}}
|-
!object
|{{lang|fj|au}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eirau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eitou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eimami}}
|-
!cardinal
|{{lang|fj|yau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eirau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eitou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}eimami}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |2
!subject
|{{lang|fj|o}}
|{{lang|fj|(o)mudrau}} ~ {{lang|fj|(o)drau}}
|{{lang|fj|(o)mudou}} ~ {{lang|fj|(o)dou}}
|{{lang|fj|(o)munuu}} ~ {{lang|fj|(o)nuu}}
|-
!object
|{{lang|fj|i{{saltillo}}o}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emudrau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emudou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emunuu}}
|-
!cardinal
|{{lang|fj|i{{saltillo}}o}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emudrau}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emudou}}
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}emunuu}}
|-
! rowspan="3" |3
!subject
|{{lang|fj|e}}
|{{lang|fj|(e)rau}}
|{{lang|fj|(e)ratou}}
|{{lang|fj|(e)ra}}
|-
!object
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ea}}
|{{lang|fj|rau}}
|{{lang|fj|iratou}}
|{{lang|fj|ira}}
|-
!cardinal
|{{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}ea}}
|{{lang|fj|(i)rau}}
|{{lang|fj|(i)ratou}}
|{{lang|fj|(i)ra}}
|}

==== Forms and function ====
Each pronoun can have five forms, but some person-number combinations may have the same form for more than one function,{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=53}} as can be seen in the table above.

The forms are:

'''Cardinal''' – used when a pronoun occurs as the head of a NP. A cardinal pronoun is usually preceded by the proper article {{lang|fj|o}}, except when preceded by a preposition:

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|era sa la{{saltillo}}o [o ira]
|3PL ASP go ART 3PL
|"They are going" (2)[24]{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=53}}}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|au aa soli-a [a niu] [vei ira]
|1SG PAST give-TR ART coconut PREP 3PL
|"I gave [the coconut] [to them]"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=53}}}}

'''Subject''' – the first constituent of a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]], acts as person marking. Examples can be seen in examples (1) and (2) above: {{lang|fj|era}} and {{lang|fj|au}}, and (3) below: {{lang|fj|o}}

'''Object''' – follows the {{lang|fj|-i}}-final form of a transitive verb:

{{interlinear|number=(3)
|o aa biu-ti ira
|2SG PAST leave-TR 3PL
|"You left them"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=53}}}}

'''Possessive suffix''' – attaches to [[Inalienable possession|inalienable]] nouns, and

'''Possessive''' – precedes the NP head of the 'possessed' constituent in a possessive construction.

(For more information on the form and function of these possessive pronouns, see Possession.)

==== Use ====
The major clausal structure in Fijian minimally includes a predicate, which usually has a verb at its head.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=33}} The initial element in the predicate is the subject form pronoun:

{{interlinear|number=(4a)
|au la{{saltillo}}o
|1SG go
|"I am going"}}
{{interlinear|number=(4b)
|era la{{saltillo}}o
|3PL go
|"They are going"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=33}}}}

This 'subject marker + verb' predicate construction is obligatory, every other constituent is optional. The subject may be expanded upon by an NP following the predicate:

{{interlinear|number=(5)
|era la{{saltillo}}o [a gone]
|3PL go ART child
|"[the children] are going" or "They [the children] are going"{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=33}}}}

The subject pronoun constituent of a predicate acts mainly as a person marker.

Fijian is a [[verb–object–subject]] language, and the subject pronoun may be translated as its equivalent in English, the subject NP of a clause in Fijian follows the verb and the object if it is included.

The social use of pronouns is largely driven by respect and hierarchy. Each of the non-singular second person pronouns can be used for a singular addressee. For example, if one's actual or potential in-laws are addressed, the 2DU pronoun should be used. Similarly, when a brother or sister of the opposite sex is addressed, the 2PA pronoun should be used, and it can also be used for same-sex siblings when the speaker wishes to show respect. The 2PL pronoun can be used to show respect to elders, particularly the village chief.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=53}}

=== Possession ===
Possession is a grammatical term for a special relationship between two entities: a "possessor" and a "possessed". The relationship may be one of legal ownership, but in Fijian, like many other Austronesian languages, it is often much broader, encompassing kin relations, body parts, parts of an inanimate whole and personal qualities and concepts such as control, association and belonging.

Fijian has a complex system of possessive constructions, depending on the nature of the possessor and of the possessed. Choosing the appropriate structure depends on knowing{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=119}} whether the possessor is a personal or place name, a pronoun, or a common noun (with human or non-human, animate or inanimate reference), and also on whether the possessed is a free or bound noun.

==== Possessor ====
Only an animate noun may be a possessor in the true possessive constructions shown below, with possession marked on the possessed NP in a number of ways. For personal and place name possessors, the possessive construction may be made by affixing the possessive suffix {{lang|fj|–i}} to the possessed noun, bound or free. If the possessor is a pronoun, the possessed noun must be marked by one of the pronominal markers which specify person, number and inclusivity/exclusivity (see table). If the possessor is inanimate, the possessive particle {{lang|fj|ni}} is usually placed between the possessed NP and the possessor NP. The particle {{lang|fj|ni}} then indicates association, rather than formal possession, but the construction is still regarded as a possessive construction.

==== Possessed ====
Free nouns can stand alone and need no affix; most nouns in Fijian fall into this class. Bound nouns require a suffix to complete them and are written ending in a hyphen to indicate this requirement. {{lang|fj|Tama-}} {{gloss|father}} and {{lang|fj|tina-}} {{gloss|mother}} are examples of bound nouns. The classes of free and bound nouns roughly correspond with the concept, common in Austronesian languages, of alienable and inalienable possession, respectively. Alienable possession denotes a relationship in which the thing possessed is not culturally considered an inherent part of the possessor, and inalienable possession indicates a relationship in which the possessed is regarded as an intrinsic part of the possessor.

Body parts and kin relations are typical examples of inalienable possession. Inanimate objects are typical examples of alienable possession.

The alienable nature of free nouns is further marked by prefixes, known as classifiers, indicating certain other characteristics. Some common examples are {{lang|fj|me-}} when the possessed noun is something drinkable, {{lang|fj|ke-}} (or {{lang|fj|{{saltillo}}e}}) when the noun is something edible and {{lang|fj|we-}} when the referent of the possessed noun is personal property.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Fijian possessive pronominal suffix markers{{sfn|Schütz|1985|p=449}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 
! Single
! Dual
! Paucal
! Plural
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1st person
! exclusive
| rowspan="2" | -qu
| -irau
| -itou
| -imami
|-
! inclusive
| -daru
| -datou
| -da
|-
! colspan="2" | 2nd person
| -mu
| -mudrau
| -mudou
| -muni
|-
! colspan="2" | 3rd person
| -na
| -drau
| -dratou
| -dra
|}

==== Possessive constructions ====

The word order of a possessive construction for all except inanimate possessors is possessed NP-classifier(CLF) + possessive marker (POSS) + possessor NP. For an inanimate possessor, the word order is possessed NP + {{lang|fj|ni}} + possessor NP.{{sfn|Dixon|1988|p=120}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!  !! POSSESSED !! POSSESSED
|-
! POSSESSOR || bound noun || free noun
|-
| personal/place name || suffix {{lang|fj|-i}} (example 1) || classifier plus suffix {{lang|fj|-i}}; or suffix {{lang|fj|-i}} (example 2)
|-
| pronoun || pronominal suffix; or suffix {{lang|fj|-i}} (example 3a, b) || classifier plus possessor pronoun (example 4a, b)
|-
| human noun || pronominal suffix, expanded by post-head possessor NP; or suffix {{lang|fj|-i}};  or NP {{lang|fj|ni}} NP (example 5) || classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP (example 6)
|-
| animate noun|| NP {{lang|fj|ni}} NP ;  or pronominal suffix, expanded by post-head possessor NP || NP {{lang|fj|ni}} NP; or classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP
|-
| inanimate noun || NP {{lang|fj|ni}} NP (example 7, 8) || NP {{lang|fj|ni}} NP (example 7, 8)
|}

Note that there is some degree of flexibility in the use of possessive constructions as described in this table.

==== Examples ====
{{interlinear|a liga-i Paula|ART hand-POSS Paula|"Paula's hand"}}
{{interlinear|a waqona me-i Paula|ART kava CLF.drink-POSS Paula|"Paula's kava"}}
{{interlinear|a tama-mudrau|ART father-PN.2DU|"The father of you two"}}
{{interlinear|a liga-qu|ART hand-PN.1SG|"My hand"}}
{{interlinear|a me-na ti|ART CLF.drink-POSS.PN.3SG tea|"His / her tea"}}
{{interlinear|a {{saltillo}}e-mu uvi|ART CLF.eat-POSS-PN.2SG yam|"Your (SG) yam (for eating)."}}
{{interlinear|a liga-na|ART hand-PN.3SG|His / her hand}}
{{interlinear|a we-irau waqa o yau ei Jone|ART CLF.property-POSS.PN.1DU boat ART I and John|John's and my boat (thing owned).}}
{{interlinear|na yaca ni waqa|ART name POSS.PTCP boat|The name of the boat (The name associated with the boat)}}
{{interlinear|a vale ni kana|ART house POSS.PTCP eat|"A house of eating (A house associated with eating)" = "A restaurant"}}

== Syntax ==
The normal Fijian word order is [[Verb–object–subject|VOS]] ([[verb–object–subject]]):
{{interlinear|indent=3
|E rai-c-a na no-na motoka {o Jone.}
|3SG-SUB see-TR-3SG-OBJ the 3SG-POSS car John.
|John sees his car.}}

== Sample phrases ==
=== Greetings ===
Below are some examples of Fijian greetings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/fiji/articles/18-fijian-phrases-you-need-to-know-before-you-travel/|title=18 Fijian Phrases You Need To Know Before You Travel|first=Juliette|last=Sivertsen|date=January 30, 2017|website=Culture Trip}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Fijian
! English
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| {{lang|fj|Au domoni iko.}}
| I love you.
| {{IPA-fj|ɔu̯ ⁿdo.mo.ni i.ko|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|bula}}
| hello (literally "life")
| {{IPA-fj|ᵐbu.la|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|io}}
| yes
| {{IPA-fj|io|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|kerekere}}
| please
| {{IPA-fj|ke.re.ke.re|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|moce}}
| goodbye
| {{IPA-fj|mo.ðe|}}
|-
|{{lang|fj| ni sa bula [vinaka]}}
| hello (formal), welcome
| {{IPA-fj|ni sa ᵐbu.la|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|sega}}
| no
| {{IPA-fj|se.ŋa|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|sega na leqa}}
| no worries
| {{IPA-fj|se.ŋa na le.ᵑɡa|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|sota tale}}
| see you later
| {{IPA-fj|so.ta ta.le|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|Vacava tiko?}}
| How are you?
| {{IPA-fj|βa.ða.βa ti.ko|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|vinaka}}
| thank you
| {{IPA-fj|βi.na.ka|}}
|-
| {{lang|fj|yadra}}
| good morning
| {{IPA-fj|ja.ɳɖʳa|}}
|}

== Sample text ==
{{lang|fj|Era sucu ena galala na tamata yadua, era tautauvata ena nodra dokai kei na nodra dodonu. E tiko na nodra vakasama kei na nodra lewaeloma, sa dodonu mera veidokadokai ena yalo ni veitacini.}}

{{lang|en|All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.}}

''[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], Article 1''

== Grammatical abbreviations ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Abbreviations and Constructions
|1
|first person
|-
|2
|second person
|-
|3
|third person
|-
|ART
|article
|-
|ASP
|aspect
|-
|CLF
|numeral classifier
|-
|MODIF
|modifier
|-
|NP
|noun phrase
|-
|PTCP
|participle
|-
|PASS
|passive voice
|-
|PAST
|past tense
|-
|PL
|plural
|-
|POSS
|possessive
|-
|PREP
|preposition 
|-
|PN
|pronoun
|-
|REDUP
|reduplication
|-
|SG
|singular 
|-
|TR
|transitive 
|}
<section begin="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style="display:none;">
MODIF:modifier
</div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/>

== National language debate ==
{{main|National language debate in Fiji}}
In May and June 2005, a number of prominent Fiji Islanders called for the status of Fijian to be upgraded. It was not an official language before the adoption of the [[1997 Constitution of Fiji|1997 Constitution]], which made it co-official with [[English language|English]] and [[Fiji Hindi]]. It is still not a compulsory subject in schools{{when|date=August 2017}}, but then Education Minister, [[Teimumu Kepa|Ro Teimumu Kepa]], had endorsed calls for that to change, as had the former [[Great Council of Chiefs]] [[Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs|Chairman]] [[Ovini Bokini|Ratu Ovini Bokini]]. Similar calls also came from [[Misiwini Qereqeretabua]], the former Director of the [[Institute of Fijian Language and Culture]], and from [[Apolonia Tamata]], a [[linguistics]] [[lecturer]] at [[Suva]]'s [[University of the South Pacific]], both of whom said that recognition of the Fijian language is essential to the nation's basic identity and as a unifying factor in Fiji's multicultural society.

The [[Fiji Labour Party]] leader [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] also endorsed the call for Fijian to be made a national language and a compulsory school subject if the same status was given to [[Fiji Hindi]], a position that was echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.

== See also ==
* [[East Fijian languages]]
* [[Languages of Fiji]]
* [[West Fijian languages]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book | first=R. M. W. | last=Dixon | year=1988 | title=A Grammar of Boumaa Fijian | location=Chicago | publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] | isbn=0-226-15428-9}}
* {{cite book |first=Albert J. |last=Schütz |year=1985 |title=The Fijian Language |location=Honolulu |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |isbn=0-8248-1005-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/fijianlanguage0000schu}}
* {{Cite book|title=Say it in Fijian : an entertaining introduction to the standard language of Fiji|last=Schütz |first=Albert J. |date=2003 |publisher=Textbook Wholesalers |isbn=1862730385 |oclc=156199054}}

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=fj}}
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/fijian.htm Fijian language, alphabet and pronunciation] at Omniglot
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091027023635/http://geocities.com/fijidictionary/  Fijian–English / English–Fijian Dictionary]
* [http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Fiji/index.html Na Soqoni Tabu: Na Veitarataravi Ni Noda Veiqaravi Kei Na Kalou] [[Anglican]] Holy Communion in Fijian
* A [https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/32627 collection of open access Fijian recordings] in [[Kaipuleohone]]. 
* [[hdl:10125/32625|Index cards of plant and animal names, labeled 'Fiji [plants]']] archived with [[Kaipuleohone]] 
* Materials on Fijian are included in the open access [[Arthur Capell]] collections ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC1 AC1] and [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC2 AC2]) held by [[Paradisec]]. 
* [[Paradisec]] also holds an open access [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/DG4 collection of Fijian music] Fijian manuscripts in the [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/PAMBU Pacific Manuscripts Bureau collection],  
* [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/GG1 George Grace's manuscript collection at the University of Hawai'i] includes Fijian

{{Languages of Fiji}}
{{Central Pacific languages}}
{{Austronesian languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fijian Language}}
[[Category:Fijian language| ]]
[[Category:East Fijian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Fiji]]
[[Category:Verb–object–subject languages]]