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[[File:Great Sphinx of Giza - 20080716a.jpg|thumb|240px|The Great Sphinx of Giza]]
The '''Great Sphinx of Giza''' ({{lang-ar|أبو الهول}} {{transl|ar|''Abū al Hūl''}}, {{lang-en|The Father of Terror}}), commonly referred to as the '''Sphinx''', is a [[limestone]] [[statue]] of a reclining or [[Attitude_(heraldry)#Couchant|couchant]] [[sphinx]] (a [[legendary creature|mythical creature]] with a [[lion]]'s body and a human head) that stands on the [[Giza Plateau]] on the west bank of the [[Nile]] in [[Giza]], [[Egypt]].

It is the largest [[monolith]] statue in the world, standing {{Convert|73.5|m|ft|0}} long, {{Convert|6|m|ft|0}} wide, and {{Convert|20.22|m|ft|2|abbr=on}} high.<ref name="Emporis">[http://www.emporis.com/application/?nav=building&lng=3&id=greatsphinxofgiza-giza-egypt Emporis – Great Sphinx of Giza]</ref> It is the oldest known [[monumental sculpture]], and is commonly believed to have been built by [[ancient Egypt]]ians of the [[Old Kingdom]] during the reign of the [[pharaoh]] [[Khafra]] (c. 2558–2532&nbsp;BC).<ref name="Emporis" /><ref>Dunford, Jane; Fletcher, Joann; French, Carole (ed., 2007). [http://www.dorlingkindersley-uk.co.uk/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9781405320931,00.html?/Egypt ''Egypt: Eyewitness Travel Guide'']. London: [[Dorling Kindersley]], 2007. ISBN 978-0-7566-2875-8.</ref>

== Origin and identity ==
The Great Sphinx is one of the world's largest and oldest statues, but basic facts about it, such as who its face was modeled after, when it was built, and by whom, are still debated. These questions have resulted in the popular idea of the "Riddle of the Sphinx," <ref>Coxill, David (1998). "The Riddle of the Sphinx", ''InScription: Journal of Ancient Egypt'', '''2''' (Spring 1998), 17; cited in Schoch, Robert M. (2000) [http://www.circulartimes.org/New%20Studies%20Confirm%20Very%20Old%20SPhinx.htm]. "New Studies Confirm Very Old Sphinx" in Dowell, Colette M. (ed). ''Circular Times''.</ref> although this phrase should not be confused with the original Greek legend of [[Sphinx#The Riddle of the Sphinx|the Riddle of the Sphinx]].
[[File:'Le Sphinx Armachis, Caire' (The Sphinx Armachis, Cairo).jpg|thumb|right|The Great Sphinx in about 1880, partly under the sand]]
[[Image:Sphinx partially excavated2.jpg|thumb|right|The Great Sphinx partially excavated]]
[[Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.02.jpg|thumb|right|The Sphinx against the [[Pyramid of Khafre]]]]

[[Pliny The Elder]] mentioned the Great Sphinx in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', commenting that the Egyptians looked upon the statue as a "divinity" that has been passed over in silence and "that King Harmais was buried in it". <ref>Book 36, chapter 17, in ''The Natural History of Pliny'', translated by John Bostock & H. T. Riley, Volume 6, pages 336-337 (London: H. G. Bohn, 1857).[http://www.archive.org/details/naturalhistoryof06plin]</ref><ref>Christiane Zivie-Coche, ''Sphinx: History of a Monument'', pages 99-100 (Cornell University Press, 2002). ISBN 0-8014-3962-0</ref>

=== Names of the Sphinx ===
It is not known by what name the creators called their statue, as the Great Sphinx does not appear in any known inscription of the Old Kingdom, and there are no inscriptions anywhere describing its construction or its original purpose. In the [[New Kingdom]], the Sphinx was called ''[[Horus|Hor]]-em-[[akhet (hieroglyph and season)|akhet]]'' ({{lang-en|[[Horus]] of the Horizon}}; [[Hellenization|Hellenized]]: ''Harmachis''), and the pharaoh [[Thutmose&nbsp;IV]] ([[1401 BC|1401]]–[[1391 BC|1391]] or [[1397 BC|1397]]–[[1388 BC|1388]]&nbsp;BC)<ref>See [[Thutmose IV#Dates and length of reign]]</ref> specifically referred to it as such in his [[Dream Stele]].

The commonly used name ''[[Sphinx]]'' was given to it in [[classical antiquity]], about 2000 years after the accepted date of its construction, by reference to a [[Sphinx#Greek traditions|Greek mythological beast]] with a [[lion]]'s body, a woman's head and the wings of an [[eagle]] (although, like most [[Sphinx#Egyptian sphinxes|Egyptian sphinxes]], the Great Sphinx has a man's head and no wings). The English word ''sphinx'' comes from the [[ancient Greek]] Σφίγξ (<small>[[Romanization of Greek|transliterated]]:</small> {{transl|gr|sphinx}}), apparently from the verb σφίγγω (<small>[[Romanization of Greek|transliterated]]:</small> {{transl|gr|sphingo}} / {{lang-en|to squeeze}}), after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed to answer [[Sphinx#The Riddle of the Sphinx|her riddle]].

The name may alternatively be a [[Corruption (linguistics)|corruption]] of the [[Egyptian language|ancient Egyptian]] ''Ssp-anx'' (in [[Manuel de Codage|MdC]]), a name given to royal statues of [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Dynasty&nbsp;IV]] ([[2575 BC|2575]]–[[2467 BC|2467]]&nbsp;BC and later) in the New Kingdom (''{{circa}}'' 1570–1070&nbsp;BC) to the Great Sphinx more specifically, although phonetically the two names are far from identical.

Medieval [[Arab]] writers, including [[Al-Maqrizi|al-Maqrīzī]], call the Sphinx ''balhib'' and ''bilhaw'', which suggest a [[Coptic language|Coptic]] influence. The modern [[Egyptian Arabic]] name is [[:ar:بو الهول|أبو الهول]] ({{transl|ar|''Abū al Hūl''}}, {{lang-en|The Terrifying One}}).

=== Builder and timeframe ===
Despite conflicting evidence and viewpoints over the years, the traditional view held by modern [[Egyptology]] at large remains that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500&nbsp;BC by the pharaoh [[Khafra]], the builder of the [[Pyramid of Khafre|Second Pyramid]] at Giza.<ref>''"Why Sequence is Important"'', Lehner, Mark; Hunt, Brian V. [http://www.aeraweb.org/khafre_seq.asp link]</ref>

[[Selim Hassan]], writing in 1949 on recent excavations of the Sphinx enclosure, summed up the problem:
<blockquote>"Taking all things into consideration, it seems that we must give the credit of erecting this, the world's most wonderful statue, to Khafre, but always with this reservation: that there is not one single contemporary inscription which connects the Sphinx with Khafre; so, sound as it may appear, we must treat the evidence as circumstantial, until such time as a lucky turn of the spade of the excavator will reveal to the world a definite reference to the erection of the Sphinx."<ref>Hassan, Selim (1949). ''The Sphinx: Its history in the light of recent excavations''. Cairo: Government Press, 1949.</ref></blockquote>

The "circumstantial" evidence mentioned by Hassan includes the Sphinx's location in the context of the funerary complex surrounding the Second Pyramid, which is traditionally connected with Khafra.<ref>Lehner, Mark (Spring 2002). [http://www.aeraweb.org/PDFs/aeragram5_2_2002.pdf "Unfinished Business: The Great Sphinx"] in ''Aeragram'', '''5''':2 (Spring 2002), 10–14. Retrieved {{Nowrap|23 December}} 2008.</ref> Apart from the Causeway, the Pyramid and the Sphinx, the complex also includes the Sphinx Temple and the Valley Temple, both of which display the same architectural style, with 200-[[tonne]] stone blocks quarried out of the Sphinx enclosure.

A [[diorite]] statue of Khafre, which was discovered buried upside down along with other debris in the Valley Temple, is claimed as support for the Khafra theory.

The Dream [[Stele]], erected much later by the pharaoh [[Thutmose&nbsp;IV]] ([[1401 BC|1401]]–[[1391 BC|1391]] or [[1397 BC|1397]]–[[1388 BC|1388]]&nbsp;BC), associates the Sphinx with Khafra. When the stela was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete, and only referred to ''Khaf'', not Khafra. An extract was translated:<blockquote>"... which we bring for him: oxen&nbsp;... and all the young vegetables; and we shall give praise to ''Wenofer'' ... ''Khaf'' ... the statue made for ''[[Atum]]-Hor-em-[[Akhet (hieroglyph and season)|Akhet]]''."<ref>Colavito, Jason (2001). [http://jcolavito.tripod.com/lostcivilizations/id17.html "Who Built the Sphinx?"] at [http://jcolavito.tripod.com/lostcivilizations/index.html Lost Civilizations Discovered]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|19 December}} 2008.</ref></blockquote> The Egyptologist [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], finding the ''Khaf'' [[hieroglyph]]s in a damaged [[cartouche]] used to surround a royal name, inserted the glyph ''ra'' to complete Khafra's name. However, the stela offers no indication of the relationship between the Sphinx and 'Khafra'&nbsp;– as its builder, restorer, worshipper or otherwise. When the Stela was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to ''Khaf'' flaked off and were destroyed.

=== Dissenting hypotheses ===

Theories held by mainstream Egyptologists about the date of the construction of the Great Sphinx of Giza have been challenged and various alternative theories have been proposed – about the builder or the dating – to explain its construction.

==== Early Egyptologists ====

Many of the early [[Egyptologist]]s and excavators of the [[Giza pyramid complex]] believed the Great Sphinx and other structures in the Sphinx enclosure predated the traditional date of construction (the reign of [[Khafra]] or Khephren, 2520–[[2492 BC|2492]]&nbsp;BC).

In 1857, [[Auguste Mariette]], founder of the [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela (estimated [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|Dynasty&nbsp;XXVI]], ''c''. [[678 BC|678]]–[[525 BC|525]]&nbsp;BC), which tells how Khufu came upon the Sphinx, already buried in sand. Although certain tracts on the Stela are considered good evidence,<ref>[[Zahi Hawass|Hawass, Zahi]]. ([http://guardians.net/hawass/khufu.htm ''The Khufu''] at [http://guardians.net/hawass/ The Plateau]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|6 January}} 2009.</ref> this passage is widely dismissed as [[Late Period of Ancient Egypt|Late Period]] [[historical revisionism]].<ref name="Reader (2002)"/>

[[Gaston Maspero]], the [[French people|French]] Egyptologist and second director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, conducted a survey of the Sphinx in 1886 and concluded:
<blockquote>"The Sphinx stela shows, in line thirteen, the [[cartouche]] of [[Khafra|Khephren]].<ref name="translit"/> I believe that to indicate an excavation carried out by that prince, following which, the almost certain proof that the Sphinx was already buried in sand by the time of Khafre<ref name="translit">Early Egyptologists were inconsistent in their transliteration of pharaonic names: ''Khafre'' and ''Khephren'' are, of course, both references to Khafra.</ref> and his predecessors [i.e. [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Dynasty&nbsp;IV]], ''c.'' [[2575 BC|2575]]–[[2467 BC|2467]]&nbsp;BC]."<ref>[http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/egypt/articles/phototr3.html The Great Sphinx] at [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org The Global Education Project]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|23 December}} 2008.</ref></blockquote>

In 1904, [[English people|English]] Egyptologist [[E. A. Wallis Budge]] wrote in ''The Gods of the Egyptians'':
<blockquote>"This marvelous object [the Great Sphinx] was in existence in the days of [[Khafra|Khafre]], or Khephren,<ref name="translit"/> and it is probable that it is a very great deal older than his reign and that it dates from the end of the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|archaic period]] [''c.'' [[2686 BC|2686]] BC]."<ref>Wallis Budge, E. A. (1904). ''The Gods of the Egyptians: Studies in Egyptian Mythology''. [[Dover Publications|Courier Dover Publications]], 1969. 2 volumes. ISBN 0-486-22055-9.</ref></blockquote>

==== Modern dissenting hypotheses ====
[[:de:Rainer Stadelmann|Rainer Stadelmann]], former director of the [[German Archaeological Institute]] in Cairo, examined the distinct [[iconography]] of the ''[[nemes]]'' (headdress) and [[Great Sphinx#Missing nose and beard|the now-detached beard]] of the Sphinx and concluded that the style is more indicative of the Pharaoh [[Khufu]] ([[2589 BC|2589]]–[[2566 BC|2566]]&nbsp;BC), builder of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] and Khafra's father.<ref name="Fleming (2004)"/> He supports this by suggesting that Khafra's Causeway was built to conform to a pre-existing structure, which, he concludes, given its location, could only have been the Sphinx.<ref name="Reader (2002)"/>

[[Colin Reader]], an [[English people|English]] [[geologist]] who independently conducted a more recent survey of the enclosure, points out that the various quarries on the site have been excavated around the Causeway. Because these quarries are known to have been used by Khufu, Reader concludes that the Causeway (and the temples on either end thereof) must predate Khufu, thereby casting doubt on the [[conventional Egyptian chronology]].<ref name="Reader (2002)"/>

In 2004, Vassil Dobrev of the [[Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale]] in Cairo announced that he had uncovered new evidence that the Great Sphinx may have been the work of the little-known Pharaoh [[Djedefre]] ([[2528 BC|2528]]–2520&nbsp;BC), Khafra's half brother and a son of [[Khufu]].<ref name="Riddle of the Sphinx">[http://documentarystorm.com/history-archaeology/riddle-of-the-sphinx/ Riddle of the Sphinx] Retrieved {{Nowrap|6 November}} 2010.</ref> Dobrev suggests that Djedefre built the Sphinx in the image of his father Khufu, identifying him with the sun god [[Ra]] in order to restore respect for [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|their dynasty]]. Dobrev also notes, like Stadelmann and others, that the causeway connecting Khafre's pyramid to the temples was built around the Sphinx suggesting it was already in existence at the time.<ref name="Fleming (2004)">Fleming, Nic (2004-12-14). [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/1478998/I-have-solved-riddle-of-the-Sphinx-says-Frenchman.html "I have solved riddle of the Sphinx, says Frenchman"] in ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''. Updated {{Nowrap|14 December}} 2004. Retrieved {{Nowrap|28 June}} 2005.</ref>

Frank Domingo, a [[forensic science|forensic scientist]] in the [[New York City Police Department]] and an expert [[forensic anthropology|forensic anthropologist]],<ref>Taylor, Karen T., [http://www.theiai.org/disciplines/art/history.php ''History of the IAI Forensic Art Discipline''] at the [[International Association for Identification]]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|5 January}} 2009.</ref> used detailed measurements of the Sphinx, [[forensic arts|forensic drawings]] and [[computer graphics|computer imaging]] to conclude that Khafra, as depicted on extant [[Art of ancient Egypt#Sculpture|statuary]], was not the [[Model (art)|model]] for the Sphinx's face.<ref>West, John Anthony (1993). [http://books.google.com/books?id=0S1qpP7By9IC&pg=PA232&lpg=PA232&dq=frank+domingo+west&source=web&ots=mCDxUhvmLd&sig=bjH-JglrK_KsjNpmcYYi2GHr6e4 ''Serpent in the Sky: The High Wisdom of Ancient Egypt''], 232. [[Wheaton, Illinois|Wheaton]]: [[Quest Books#Publications|Quest Books]], 1993. ISBN 0-8356-0691-0.</ref>

===== Water erosion debate =====
[[File:The Great Sphinx, Pyramids of Gizeh-1839) by David Roberts, RA.jpg|thumb|left|The Sphinx in 1839, by [[David Roberts (painter)|David Roberts]] who, unlike most Western artists depicting it, had seen it]]
[[File:Sphinx_of_Giza_9059.jpg|thumb|left|The Sphinx profile in 2010]]
French "mystic" <ref>{{cite book|last=Wilson|first=Peter Lamborn|title=Sacred Drift: Essays on the Margins of Islam|year=1993|publisher=City Lights Books|isbn=978-0872862753|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6jThK-K00bAC&pg=PA105&dq=%22Schwaller+de+Lubicz%22+mystic&hl=en&sa=X&ei=7oz9ToPIKoei8gP7sYmaAQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBjge#v=onepage&q=%22Schwaller%20de%20Lubicz%22%20mystic&f=false|page=105}}</ref><ref>Garrett G. Fagan (editor), ''Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public'', page 251 (Routledge, 2006). ISBN 0-415-30593-4</ref> and amateur Egyptologist, [[R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz]] first claimed evidence of [[Erosion#Water|water erosion]] on the walls of the Sphinx enclosure in the 1950s. <ref>"A great civilization must have preceded the vast movements of water that passed over Egypt [in 10,000 B.C.], which leads us to assume that the Sphinx already existed... whose leonine body, except for the head, shows indisputable signs of aquatic erosion" in, R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, ''Sacred Science: The King of Pharaonic Theocracy'' (New York: Inner Traditions International, 1982. ISBN 0892810076). Originally published entitled ''Le Roi de la Théocratie Pharaonique'' (Paris: Flammarion, 1961).</ref> Author and alternative Egyptologist [[John Anthony West]] investigated Schwaller de Lubicz's claims further and in 1989 sought the opinion of [[geologist]], [[Robert M. Schoch]], associate professor of [[natural science]] at the College of General Studies at [[Boston University]].

From his investigation of the enclosure's geology, Schoch concluded that the main type of [[weathering]] evident on the Sphinx enclosure walls could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive [[rainfall|rain]].<ref name="Schoch (1992)">Schoch, Robert M. (1992). [http://www.robertschoch.net/Redating%20the%20Great%20Sphinx%20of%20Giza.htm "Redating the Great Sphinx of Giza"] in ''Circular Times'', ed. Collette M. Dowell. Retrieved {{Nowrap|17 December}} 2008.</ref> According to Schoch, the area has experienced a mean annual rainfall of approximately one inch (2.5&nbsp;cm) since the [[Old Kingdom]] (''c''. [[2686 BC|2686]]–[[2134 BC|2134]]&nbsp;BC), and since Egypt's [[Sahara#Climate history|last period of significant rainfall]] ended between the late fourth and early [[3rd millennium BC]],<ref>[http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/~e118/Fezzan/fezzan_palaeoclim.html Palaeoclimate and environment], Fezzan Project, Climate Research Unit, Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, [[University of East Anglia]]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|17 December}} 2008.</ref> he dates the Sphinx's construction to the [[6th millennium BC]] or [[5th millennium BC]].<ref>Schoch, Robert M. (1995), [http://www.robertschoch.net/Response%20in%20Archaeology%20Schoch%20Hawass%20Lehner.htm "Response in ''Archaeology Magazine'' to Zahi Hawass and Mark Lehner"] in Dowell, Colette M. (ed.). ''Circular Times''.</ref><ref name="Schoch (1999-2000)">Schoch, Robert M. (1999–2000), [http://www.robertschoch.com/Sphinx_Geology.html "Geological Evidence pertaining to the Age of the Great Sphinx"], in Spedicato, Emilio; Notarpietro, Adalberto (ed., 2002). ''New Scenarios on the Evolution of the Solar System and Consequences on History of Earth and Man, Proceedings of the Conference. Milan and Bergamo, 07–{{Nowrap|09 June}} 1999.'' Università degli Studi di Bergamo, Quaderni del Dipartmento di Matematica, Statistica, Informatica ed Applicazion, Serie Miscellanea. '''3''' (2002), 171–203.</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Brass |url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Schoch_redating.html |title=The Antiquity of Man Robert Schoch |publisher=Antiquityofman.com |date= |accessdate=2009-05-26}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

Contrary to Schoch's paleometeorological conclusions, recent studies by German [[Climatology|climatologists]] Rudolph Kuper and Stefan Kröpelin, of the [[University of Cologne]], and geologist Judith Bunbury, of [[St Edmund's College, Cambridge]], suggest that the change from a wet to a much drier climate may have occurred later than is currently thought, and that [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Dynasty&nbsp;IV]] (the traditional era of the construction of the Sphinx) may still have been a period of significant rainfall; a conclusion also accepted by [[Mark Lehner]].<ref>Haddingham, Evan "Uncovering Secrets of the Sphinx" ''Smithsonian magazine'', February 2010 [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Uncovering-Secrets-of-the-Sphinx.html?c=y&page=1]</ref> However, Schoch points out that fragile [[mudbrick]] structures nearby, indisputably dated to Dynasties&nbsp;I and II, have survived relatively undamaged, indicating that no heavy rainfall has occurred in the region since the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]], and nor was any heavy rain anticipated by those Early Dynastic communities who built those structures.<ref>http://www.robertschoch.net/Redating%20the%20Great%20Sphinx%20of%20Giza.htm</ref>

[[Colin Reader]], a British geologist, agrees that the suggested evidence of weathering indicates prolonged water erosion. Reader found, ''[[List of Latin phrases (I)#inter alia|inter alia]]'', that the flow of rainwater causing the weathering had been stemmed by the construction of 'Khufu's quarries',<ref>Löhner, Franz; Zuberbühler, Teresa (2006). [http://www.cheops-pyramide.ch/khufu-pyramid/stone-quarries.html#herkunft ''Building the Great Pyramid: Quarries in Ancient Egypt'']. Updated 2006. Retrieved {{Nowrap|5 January}} 2009.</ref> which lie directly "[[wiktionary:upstream|upstream]]" of the Sphinx enclosure, and therefore concludes that the Sphinx must predate the reign of Khufu ([[2589 BC|2589]]–[[2566 BC|2566]]&nbsp;BC), and certainly Khafra, by several hundred years. Reader however disagrees with Schoch's palaeometeorological estimates, and instead concludes that the Sphinx dates to the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]] (''c.'' 3150–[[2686 BC|2686]] BC).<ref name="Reader (2002)">Reader, Colin (2002). "[http://www.thehallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=93 Giza Before the Fourth Dynasty]", ''Journal of the Ancient Chronology Forum'', '''9''' (2002), 5–21. Retrieved 2008-12-17.</ref><ref>Giulio Magli, ''Mysteries and Discoveries of Archaeoastronomy: From Giza to Easter Island'', page 374 (Praxis Publishing Limited, 2009). ISBN 978-0-387-76564-8</ref>

David Coxill, a geologist working independently of both Schoch and Reader, concludes from the evidence of weathering in the enclosure: <blockquote>"The Sphinx is at least 5,000 years old and [[Predynastic Egypt|pre-dates dynastic times]] [before 3100 BC]."<ref name="Coxill (1998)">Coxill, David (1998). "The Riddle of the Sphinx", ''InScription: Journal of Ancient Egypt'', '''2''' (Spring 1998), 17; cited in Schoch, Robert M. (2000). [http://www.circulartimes.org/New%20Studies%20Confirm%20Very%20Old%20SPhinx.htm "New Studies Confirm Very Old Sphinx"] in Dowell, Colette M. (ed). ''Circular Times''.</ref></blockquote>

Most Egyptologists, dating the building of the Sphinx to Khafra's reign (2520–[[2492 BC|2492]]&nbsp;BC), do not accept the water erosion theory. Alternative explanations for the evidence of weathering, from [[Aeolian processes#Wind erosion|Aeolian processes]] and [[acid rain]] to [[exfoliation (geology)|exfoliation]], [[haloclasty]], [[Weathering#Thermal stress|thermal expansion]], and even the poor quality [[limestone]] of the Sphinx, have been put forward by Egyptologists and [[geologist]]s, including Mark Lehner,{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}} James A. Harrell of the [[University of Toledo]],<ref>Harrell, James A. (Summer 1994). "The Sphinx Controversy: Another Look at the Geological Evidence," ''[http://www.kmtjournal.com/kmtbackissues/kmt00502.htm KMT: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt]'', '''5''':2 (Summer 1994), 70–74.</ref> Lal Gauri ''et al.'',<ref>Gauri, K. Lal; Sinai, John J.; Bandyopadhyay, Jayanta K. (1995–04). "Geologic Weathering and Its Implications on the Age of the Sphinx," ''[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-GEA.html Geoarchaeology: an International Journal]'', '''10''':2 (April 1995), 119–133. ISSN 0883-6353.</ref>, and Lambert Dolphin, a former senior research physicist at [[SRI International]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}.

The chief proponents of the water erosion theory have rejected these alternative explanations. Reader, who agrees that the Sphinx predates the 4th Dynasty but prefers a construction date within the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]], points to the tombs dug into the enclosure walls during [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|Dynasty&nbsp;XXVI]] (''c''. 600&nbsp;BC), and notes that the entrances of the tombs have weathered so lightly that original chisel marks are still clearly visible. He points out that if the weathering on the enclosure walls (up to a metre deep in places) had been created by any of the proposed alternative causes of erosion, the tomb entrances would have been weathered much more severely.<ref name="Reader (2000)"/> Similarly, Schoch points out that the alternative explanations do not account for the absence of similar weathering patterns on other rock surfaces in the Giza pyramid complex which were cut from the same limestone beds.<ref name="Schoch (1999-2000)"/>

[[Zahi Hawass]] points out that some of the surface of the Sphinx (specifically that referred to as 'Member II') is continually shedding at a rapid rate, saying that "The eleven hundred years between Khafre and the first major restoration in the Eighteenth Dynasty, or even half this time, would have been more than enough to erode the Member II into the deep recesses behind Phase I restoration masonry." <ref>{{cite book|last=Hawass|first=Zahi|title=The Secrets of the Sphinx: Restoration past and present|year=Reprint 1999|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-9774244926|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=paNczK-gUWMC&pg=PA14&dq=sphinx+weathering&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KWYAT-TIGYXA8QOkje35AQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=rainfall&f=false|page=14}}</ref> Egyptologist Peter Lacovara believes that "some of the erosional features pointed to on the perimeter walls of the Sphinx enclosure are not from weathering at all, but from the quarrying of the stone" (to build the Giza pyramids) and that "Other wear and tear on the Sphinx is due to percolating groundwater and wind erosion."<ref>{{cite book|last=Lacovara|first=Peter|title=The Pyramids, the Sphinx: Tombs and Temples of Giza|year=2004|publisher=Bunker Hill Publishing|isbn=978-1593730222|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=N9gSkrNuezEC&pg=PA64&dq=sphinx+weathering&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LWcAT8jYCIyn8gPmpdSgAQ&ved=0CEoQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=schoch&f=false|page=64}}</ref>

An analysis of the Great Sphinx's [[bedrock]] by the [[Getty Conservation Institute]] between 1990-1992 concluded that the erosion was caused by "the action of mineral salts within the plateau and/or the wind." <ref>Dan Richardson, ''The Rough Guide To Egypt'', page 219 (Rough Guides, Fifth edition, 2003). ISBN 978-1843530503 </ref><ref>[http://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/newsletters/7_2/sphinx.html International Symposium on the Great Sphinx by Jeffrey Levin]</ref><ref>"Getty Institute Probes Riddle of the Deteriorating Sphinx" by Kim Murphy, ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 16 May 1990 [http://articles.latimes.com/1990-05-16/entertainment/ca-249_1_getty-institute]</ref>

=== Fringe hypotheses ===
[[Image:orion - pyramids.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Orion Correlation Theory]]: The Giza pyramids (in outline) [[Superimposition|superimposed]] on an [[Astrophotography|astrophotograph]] of [[Orion's Belt]]. '''Note''': the pyramids have been [[Rotation (mathematics)|rotated]] and [[Scaling (geometry)|scaled]] to facilitate correlation.]]
The origin and identity of the Sphinx are the subject of many [[Fringe theory|fringe theories]] that are not generally accepted by [[mainstream]] Egyptologists or are unsupported by [[Scientific method|scientific evidence]].

==== Orion correlation theory ====

The [[Orion correlation theory]], as expounded by popular authors [[Graham Hancock]] and [[Robert Bauval]],<ref>Hancock, Graham; Bauval, Robert (2000-12-14). [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/atlantisrebornagain.shtml ''Atlantis Reborn Again'']. [[Horizon (BBC TV series)|Horizon]]. [[BBC]]. Aired 2000-12-14.</ref> is based on the proposed exact correlation of the three pyramids at Giza with the three stars [[Zeta Orionis|ζ&nbsp;Ori]], [[Epsilon Orionis|ε&nbsp;Ori]] and [[Delta Orionis|δ&nbsp;Ori]], the stars forming [[Orion's Belt]], in the relative positions occupied by these stars in [[Paleolithic|10500]]&nbsp;BC. The authors argue that the geographic relationship of the Sphinx, the Giza pyramids and the [[Nile]] directly corresponds with [[Leo (constellation)|Leo]], [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] and the [[Milky Way]] respectively. Sometimes cited as an example of [[pseudoarchaeology]], the theory is at variance with mainstream scholarship; Bauval and Hancock in turn say that archaeologists are engaged in a conspiracy to ignore or suppress evidence contradicting the established scholarly consensus.<ref>{{cite book|last=Orser|first=Charles E.|title=Race and practice in archaeological interpretation|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2003|page=73|isbn=9780812237504}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Hancock|first=Graham|coauthors=Bauval, Robert|title=The Message of the Sphinx: A Quest for the Hidden Legacy of Mankind|page=271|publisher=Three Rivers Press|year=1997|isbn=978-0517888520}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Garrett G. (ed.)|title=Archaeological fantasies: how pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|pages=20, 38–40, 100–103, 127, 197–201, 238, 241–255|isbn=9780415305938}}</ref>

==== The Great Sphinx as Anubis ====
Author [[Robert K. G. Temple]] proposes that the Sphinx was originally a statue of the Jackal-Dog [[Anubis]], the God of the Necropolis, and that its face was recarved in the likeness of a Middle Kingdom Pharaoh, [[Amenemhet II]]. Temple bases his identification on the style of the eye make-up and the style of the pleats on the head-dress.<ref>Robert K. G. Temple, ''The Sphinx Mystery: The Forgotten Origins of The Sanctuary of Anubis'' (Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 2009). ISBN 9781594772719</ref>

==== Racial characteristics ====
Over the years several authors have commented on what they perceive as "Negroid" or Ethiopian characteristics in the face of the Sphinx.<ref>{{cite book|last=Regier|first=Willis G. (ed.)|title=Book of the Sphinx|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|year=2004|page=157|isbn=9780803239562}}</ref> This issue has become part of the [[Ancient Egyptian race controversy]], with respect to the ancient population as a whole.<ref>Irwin, Graham W. (1977). [http://books.google.co.uk/books?lr=&client=firefox-a&id=DBhqAAAAIAAJ&dq=sphinx+negroid&q=sphinx+#search_anchor Africans abroad], Columbia University Press, p. 11</ref> The face of the Sphinx has been damaged over the millennia, making conclusive racial identification of its characteristics difficult or impossible, much less assuming that a part-lion mythical creature was carved to accurate human standards.

== Restoration ==
After the Giza Necropolis was abandoned, the Sphinx became buried up to its shoulders in sand. The first documented attempt at an excavation dates to ''c''. 1400&nbsp;BC, when the young [[Thutmose&nbsp;IV]] ([[1401 BC|1401]]–[[1391 BC|1391]] or [[1397 BC|1397]]–[[1388 BC|1388]]&nbsp;BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he placed a [[granite]] slab, known as the [[Dream Stele]], inscribed with the following (an extract):
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Sphinx in 1925.jpg|thumb|left|The Great Sphinx undergoing restoration, 26&nbsp;December 1925]] -->

<blockquote>... the royal son, [[Thutmose IV|Thothmos]], being arrived, while walking at midday and seating himself under the shadow of this mighty god, was overcome by slumber and slept at the very moment when [[Ra]] is at the summit [of heaven]. He found that the Majesty of this august god spoke to him with his own mouth, as a father speaks to his son, saying: Look upon me, contemplate me, O my son Thothmos; I am thy father, Harmakhis-[[Khepri|Khopri]]-[[Ra]]-[[Atum|Tum]]; I bestow upon thee the sovereignty over my domain, the supremacy over the living&nbsp;... Behold my actual condition that thou mayest protect all my perfect limbs. The sand of the desert whereon I am laid has covered me. Save me, causing all that is in my heart to be executed.<ref>Mallet, Dominique, [http://www.harmakhis.org/The%20Stele%20of%20Thotmes%20IV%20%28Translation%29.htm ''The Stele of Thothmes&nbsp;IV: A Translation''], at [http://www.harmakhis.org/ harmakhis.org]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|3 January}} 2009.</ref></blockquote>

Later, [[Ramesses II|Ramesses II the Great]] ([[1279 BC|1279]]–[[1213 BC|1213]]&nbsp;BC) may have undertaken a second excavation.

[[Mark Lehner]], an [[Egyptologist]], originally asserted that there had been a far earlier renovation during the [[Old Kingdom]] (''c''. [[2686 BC|2686]]–[[2184 BC|2184]] BC),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=13 |title=The ARCE Sphinx Project—A Preliminary Report |publisher=Hall of Maat |date= |accessdate=2009-05-26}}</ref> although he has subsequently recanted this "heretical" viewpoint.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ianlawton.com/as1.htm |title='Khufu Knew the Sphinx' by Colin Reader |publisher=Ianlawton.com |date= |accessdate=2009-05-26}}</ref>

In AD 1817, the first modern [[Archaeology|archaeological]] dig, supervised by the [[Italians|Italian]] Captain [[Giovanni Battista Caviglia]], uncovered the Sphinx's chest completely. The entire Sphinx was finally excavated in 1925 to 1936, in digs led by [[Émile Baraize]].

In 1931 engineers of the Egyptian government repaired the head of the Sphinx when part of its headdress fell off in 1926 due to erosion that had also cut deeply into its neck.<ref>''Popular Science Monthly'', July 1931, page 56.</ref>

== Missing nose and beard ==
[[Image:Beard of the sphinx.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Limestone]] fragments of the Sphinx's beard]]
The one-meter-wide nose on the face is missing. Examination of the Sphinx's face shows that long rods or chisels were hammered into the nose, one down from the bridge and one beneath the nostril, then used to pry the nose off towards the south.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Lehner | first = Mark | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = The Complete Pyramids | publisher = Thames & Hudson | year = 1997 | location = | page = 41 | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 0500050848}}</ref>

The Egyptian Arab historian [[Al-Maqrizi|al-Maqrīzī]], writing in the 15th century AD, attributes the loss of the nose to [[iconoclasm]] by [[Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr]], a [[Sufi]] Muslim from the [[khanqah]] of Sa'id al-Su'ada. In AD&nbsp;1378, upon finding the Egyptian peasants making offerings to the Sphinx in the hope of increasing their harvest, Sa'im al-Dahr was so outraged that he destroyed the nose, and was hanged for [[vandalism]]. Al-Maqrīzī describes the Sphinx as the "[[Amulet#Talismans in the Abrahamic religions|talisman]] of the Nile" on which the locals believed the [[Season of the Inundation|flood cycle]] depended.

A story claims that the nose was broken off by a cannonball fired by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s soldiers and that legend still lives on today. Other variants indict British troops, the [[Mamluk]]s, and others. However, sketches of the Sphinx by the Dane [[Frederic Louis Norden]], made in 1737 and published in 1755, illustrate the Sphinx already without a nose.

In addition to the lost nose, a [[Pharaoh#Regalia|ceremonial pharaonic beard]] is thought to have been attached, although this may have been added in later periods after the original construction. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev has suggested that had the beard been an original part of the Sphinx, it would have damaged the chin of the statue upon falling.<ref name="Fleming (2004)"/> The lack of visible damage supports his theory that the beard was a later addition.

== Mythology ==
Colin Reader has proposed that the Sphinx was probably the focus of solar worship in the [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt|Early Dynastic Period]], before the Giza Plateau became a necropolis in the [[Old Kingdom]] (c. [[2686 BC|2686]]–[[2134 BC|2134]] BC).<ref name="Reader (2000)">Reader, Colin (2000-03-17). [http://www.ianlawton.com/as4.htm ''Further considerations on the Age of the Sphinx''] at [http://www.ianlawton.com/ Rational Spirituality]. Retrieved {{Nowrap|6 January}} 2009.</ref> He ties this in with his conclusions that the Sphinx, the Sphinx temple, the Causeway and the Khafra mortuary temple are all part of a complex which predates Dynasty&nbsp;IV (c. 2613–2494&nbsp;BC). The lion has long been a symbol associated with the sun in [[ancient Near East]]ern civilizations. Images depicting the Egyptian king in the form of a lion smiting his enemies date as far back as the Early Dynastic Period.

In the [[New Kingdom]], the Sphinx became more specifically associated with the god ''Hor-em-akhet'' ([[Hellenization|Hellenized]]: ''Harmachis'') or Horus at the Horizon, which represented the [[pharaoh]] in his role as the ''Shesep-ankh'' (English: ''Living Image'') of the god [[Atum]]. Pharaoh [[Amenhotep&nbsp;II]] ([[1427 BC|1427]]–[[1401 BC|1401]] or [[1397 BC|1397]]&nbsp;BC) built a temple to the north east of the Sphinx nearly 1000 years after its construction, and dedicated it to the cult of ''Hor-em-akhet''.

== Images over the centuries ==
In the last 700 years there have been a proliferation of travellers and reports from [[Lower Egypt]], unlike [[Upper Egypt]], which was seldom reported from prior to the mid-18th century. [[Alexandria]], [[Rosetta]], [[Damietta]], [[Cairo]] and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively. Many accounts, by no means all by people who had actually seen it, were published and widely read. These include those of [[George Sandys]], [[André Thévet]], [[Athanasius Kircher]], [[Balthasar de Monconys]], [[Jean de Thévenot]], [[John Greaves]], [[Johann Michael Vansleb]], [[Benoît de Maillet]], [[Cornelis de Bruijn]], [[Paul Lucas (traveller)|Paul Lucas]], [[Richard Pococke]], [[Frederic Louis Norden]] and others. But there is an even larger crowd of more anonymous people who wrote obscure and little-read works, sometimes only unpublished manuscripts in libraries or private collections, including Henry Castela, Hans Ludwig von Lichtenstein, Michael Heberer von Bretten, [[Wilhelm von Boldensele]], [[Pierre Belon du Mans]], [[Vincent Stochove]], Christophe Harant, Gilles Fermanel, Robert Fauvel, Jean Palerne Foresien, Willian Lithgow, [[Joos van Ghistele]], etc.

Over the centuries, writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the Sphinx. The vast majority were concerned with a general description, often including a mixture of science, romance and mystique. A typical description of the Sphinx by tourists and leisure travelers throughout the 19th and 20th century was made by [[John Lawson Stoddard]];
{{quotation|It is the antiquity of the Sphinx which thrills us as we look upon it, for in itself it has no charms. The desert's waves have risen to its breast, as if to wrap the monster in a winding-sheet of gold. The face and head have been mutilated by Moslem fanatics. The mouth, the beauty of whose lips was once admired, is now expressionless. Yet grand in its loneliness, – veiled in the mystery of unnamed ages, – the relic of Egyptian antiquity stands solemn and silent in the presence of the awful desert&nbsp;– symbol of eternity. Here it disputes with Time the empire of the past; forever gazing on and on into a future which will still be distant when we, like all who have preceded us and looked upon its face, have lived our little lives and disappeared. ''John L. Stoddard's Lectures'' (1898) '''2''', 111.}}

From the 16th century far into the 19th century, observers repeatedly noted that the Sphinx has the face, neck and breast of a woman. Examples included [[Johannes Helferich]] (1579), [[George Sandys]] (1615), [[Johann Michael Vansleb]] (1677), [[Benoît de Maillet]] (1735) and [[Elliot Warburton]] (1844).

Most early Western images were book illustrations in [[printmaking|print]] form, elaborated by a professional [[engraver]] from either previous images available or some original drawing or sketch supplied by an author, and usually now lost. Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (''Cosmographie de Levant'', 1556) described the Sphinx as "the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter". He, or his artist and engraver, pictured it as a curly-haired monster with a grassy dog collar. Athanasius Kircher (who never visited Egypt) depicted the Sphinx as a Roman statue, reflecting his ability to conceptualize (''Turris Babel'', 1679). Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with straight hair; the only edge over Thevet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress. George Sandys stated that the Sphinx was a [[harlot]]; Balthasar de Monconys interpreted the headdress as a kind of hairnet, while [[François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz]]'s Sphinx had a rounded hairdo with bulky collar.

Richard Pococke's Sphinx was an adoption of Cornelis de Bruijn's drawing of 1698, featuring only minor changes, but is closer to the actual appearance of the Sphinx than anything previous. The print versions of Norden's careful drawings for his ''[[Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie]]'', 1755 are the first to clearly show that the nose was missing. However from the time of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt onwards, a number of accurate images were widely available in Europe, and copied by others.

The Disney film [[Aladdin (1992 Disney film)|Aladdin]] attributes the Sphinx's broken nose to a stonemason who accidentally chipped it off after being distracted by Aladdin and Jasmine flying past on their [[magic carpet]]. In the cartoon book [[Asterix and Cleopatra]], Obelix climbs up the face of the Sphinx and accidentally knocks the nose off.

In [[2008 in film|2008]], the film ''[[10,000 BC (film)|10,000&nbsp;BC]]'' showed a supposed original Sphinx with a lion's head. Before the film, the theory was presented on earlier [[documentary film]]s about the origin of the Sphinx.


== Gallery ==
<center>
<gallery perrow="5">
image:André Thévet, 1556.png|André Thévet, ''Cosmographie de Levant'' (1556)
image:Hogenberg & Braun, 1572.png|Hogenberg and Braun (map), ''Cairus, quae olim Babylon'' (1572), exists in various editions, from various authors, with the Sphinx looking different.
image:Jan Sommer, 1591.png|Jan Sommer, (unpublished) ''Voyages en Egypte des annees 1589, 1590 & 1591'', Institut de France, 1971 (Voyageurs occidentaux en Égypte 3)
image:George Sandys, 1615.png|George Sandys, ''A relation of a journey begun an dom. 1610'' (1615)
image:François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz, 1653.png|François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz, ''Les Voyages et Observations'' (1653)
image:Balthasar de Monconys, 1665.png|Balthasar de Monconys‎, ''Journal des voyages'' (1665)
image:Olfert Dapper, 1665.png|[[Olfert Dapper]], ''Description de l'Afrique'' (1665), note the two different displays of the Sphinx.
image:Cornelis de Bruijn, 1698.png|[[Cornelis de Bruijn]], ''Reizen van Cornelis de Bruyn door de vermaardste Deelen van Klein Asia'' (1698)
image:Johanne Baptista Homann, 1724.png|Johanne Baptista Homann (map), ''Aegyptus hodierna'' (1724)
image:Norden, 1755 (1).png|Frederic Louis Norden, ''Voyage d'Égypte et de Nubie'' (1755)
image:Norden, 1755 (2).png|Frederic Louis Norden, ''Voyage d'Égypte et de Nubie'' (1755)
image:Description de l'Egypte, 1823(1).png|''[[Description de l'Egypte (1809)|Description de l'Egypte]]'' (Panckoucke edition), Planches, Antiquités, volume V (1823), also published in the Imperial edition of 1822.
image:Description de l'Egypte, 1823(2).png|''[[Description de l'Egypte (1809)|Description de l'Egypte]]'' (Panckoucke edition), Planches, Antiquités, volume V (1823), also published in the Imperial edition of 1822.
Image:Jean-Léon Gérôme 003.jpg|[[Jean-Léon Gérôme]]'s ''Bonaparte Before the Sphinx'', 1867–1868.
</gallery>
</center>

== Popular documentaries ==
*''Mystery of The Sphinx'', narrated by [[Charlton Heston]], a [[bias]]ed documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony West, was shown as a [[NBC]] Special on 10 November 1993 (winning an [[Emmy]] award for Best Research). A 95 minute DVD, ''Mystery of the Sphinx: Expanded Edition'' was released in 2007.<ref>http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0316293/</ref>

*''Age Of The Sphinx'', a [[BBC Two]] [[Timewatch]] documentary presenting the theories of John Anthony West and critical to both sides of the argument, was shown on 27 November 1994.

== See also ==
*[[Giza]]
*[[Lion (heraldry)]]
*[[List of colossal sculpture in situ]]
*[[List of statues by height]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
*[http://documentarystorm.com/history-archaeology/riddle-of-the-sphinx/ Riddle of the Sphinx]
*[http://www.thehallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=93 An academic article arguing the case for water erosion evidence]
*[http://aldokkan.com/art/sphinx.htm Egyptian and Greek Sphinxes]
*[http://www.eridu.co.uk/Author/egypt/lost.html Egypt—The Lost Civilization Theory]
*[http://www.catchpenny.org/nose.html The Sphinx's Nose]
*[http://guardians.net/egypt/sphinx/ Sphinx photo gallery]
*[http://al-eman.com/Islamlib/viewchp.asp?BID=224&CID=1 Al Maqrizi's account] {{Ar icon}}

{{Ancient Egypt topics}}
{{Ancient Near East}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Great Sphinx Of Giza}}
[[Category:Colossal statues]]
[[Category:Egyptian legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Giza Governorate]]
[[Category:Giza Plateau]]
[[Category:27th-century BC architecture]]

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[[az:Böyük Sfinks]]
[[be:Вялікі Сфінкс]]
[[bg:Големият сфинкс в Гиза]]
[[bo:སི་ཧྥུན་ཁོ་སི། (ཨའི་ཅི།)]]
[[ca:Esfinx de Giza]]
[[cv:Мăн Сфинкс]]
[[cs:Velká sfinga v Gíze]]
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[[os:Гизæйы Егъау Сфинкс]]
[[is:Sfinxinn í Gíza]]
[[it:Sfinge di Giza]]
[[he:הספינקס הגדול של גיזה]]
[[ka:დიდი სფინქსი]]
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[[sr:Велика сфинга у Гизи]]
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[[uk:Великий Сфінкс]]
[[zh:狮身人面像]]

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