Infinitive (Ancient Greek)

The Ancient Greek infinitive is a non-finite verb form with no endings for person, number, tense and mood. It is used mainly to express acts, situations and in general "states of affairs" that are depended on another verb form, usually a finite one. It is a non declinable nominal verb form equivalent to a noun, and expresses the verbal notion abstractly; used as a noun in its main uses, it has many properties of it, as it will be seen below, yet it differs from it in some respects:

(a) When used with no article, and in its major uses (subject/object), it can normally only be equivalent to either a nominative or an accusative case; used with the article, it may be in any case (nominative, genitive, dative and accusative).

(b) It shows morphological formation according to aspect, voice (active, middle, passive) and tense (only the future infinitive).

(c) It retains some verbal syntactic features: it governs the same oblique case (its object) as the verb to which it belongs, and it may have a subject of its own, in accusative case (See the section accusative and infinitive below).

(d) It is modified by adverbials and not by adjectives.

Uses

Ancient Greek has both (a) the infinitive with the article (articular infinitive), for example τὸ ἀδικεῖν "doing wrong, wrong-doing" and (b) the infinitive without the article, for example ἀδικεῖν "to do wrong".

The infinitive with the article

The articular infinitive corresponds to a cognate verbal noun. It is preceded by the neuter singular article (τό, τοῦ, τῷ, τό) and has the character and function of both a noun and a verbal form. It can be used in any case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative) and thus participate in a construction just like any other noun: it can be subject, object (direct or indirect), predicate (rarely), apposition; it may have an adnominal or adverbial use (e.g. to be in a genitive construction as a possessive or objective genitive or it can form a genitive that denotes cause); it may form an exclamation (in poetry); it can also be the complement (object) of a preposition in any oblique case and denote many adverbial relations; finally, if in the genitive case, it can denote purpose, oftener a negative one.

κακόν ἐστι τὸ παρανομεῖν (the articular infinitive is somehow equivalent to the noun ἡ παρανομία, and in nominative case it functions as the subject of the verb ἐστί)

It is bad to break the law(s) (= Transgression of law is a bad thing)

τοῦτό ἐστι τὸ ἀδικεῖν (as a predicate adjective in nominative), τὸ πλέον τῶν ἄλλων ζητεῖν ἔχειν (nominative apposition to the demonstrative pronoun τοῦτο)

This is injustice: to seek to have more than other people.

μέγα φρονεῖ ἐπὶ τῷ δύνασθαι λέγειν (dative complement of the preposition ἐπί, denoting cause)

He takes pride in being able to speak (= ...in his ability to speak)

τὸ σιγᾶν κρεῖττόν ἐστι τοῦ λαλεῖν (genitive of comparison depended on the comparative degree adjective κρεῖττον)

Keeping silence is better than speaking

ἐτειχίσθη Ἀταλάντη... τοῦ μὴ ληστὰς κακουργεῖν τὴν Εὔβοιαν (genitive of purpose)

Αtalante was fortified to prevent pirates from ravaging Euboea.

Infinitive without the article

The infinitive without the article is of two sorts and has two discrete uses: the dynamic infinitive and the declarative infinitive (traditionally they are also said to be used not in indirect discourse and in indirect discourse respectively.)

Dynamic infinitive

A so-called dynamic infinitive may be governed by verbs of will or desire to do something (ἐθέλω or βούλομαι "to be willing, wish to" αἱροῦμαι "choose, prefer to", μέλλω "to be about to, or: delay to", κελεύω "urge, command to", ἐπιτάσσω "order to", ψηφίζομαι "vote to", ἐῶ "allow to", δέομαι "beg to" etc.), verbs of will or desire not to do anything (δέδοικα/δέδια "fear to", φοβοῦμαι "be afraid to", ἀπέχομαι "abstain from doing", αἰσχύνομαι "be ashamed to", ἀπαγορεύω "forbid to", κωλύω "hinder, prevent" etc.) and verbs or verbal expressions denoting ability, fitness, necessity, capacity, etc. (δύναμαι, ἔχω "be able to", ἐπίσταμαι, γιγνώσκω "know how to", μανθάνω "learn to", δυνατὸς εἰμί, ἱκανὸς εἰμί "I am able to", δίκαιον ἐστί "it is fair/right to", ἀνάγκη ἐστί "it is necessary to", ὥρα ἐστί "it is time to" etc.). It can also be found after adjectives (and sometimes derived adverbs) of kindred meaning (δεινός "skillful", δυνατός "able", οἷός τε "able", ἱκανός "sufficient, capable" etc.). It stands as the object (direct or indirect) of such verbs or verbal expressions, or it serves as the subject if the verb/the verbal expression is used impersonally; it also defines the meaning of an adjective almost as an accusative of respect. An infinitive of this kind denotes only aspect or stage of action, not actual tense, and can be in any tense stem (mostly in the present and aorist (see also here), the perfect being rare enough) except the future one (only the verb μέλλω "I am about to" may exceptionally take a dynamic future infinitive).

The difference between the present and the aorist infinitive is aspect or stage of action, not the tense —despite their tense stem, such infinitives always have a future reference, because of the volitive meaning of their governing verb. More specifically, an infinitive in the present verb stem lays stress on "the process or course of the state of affairs", and in many cases has "an immediative" semantic force, while an infinitive in the aorist verb stem lays stress "on the completion of the state of affairs, expressing a well-defined or well-delineated state of affairs".

Present dynamic infinitive (continuing stage of action):

βούλομαί σε εἰς τὰς Ἀθήνας ἰέναι.

I want (for) you to go (=every time, or=to start/keep going to Athens etc.).

ἀνάγκη ἐστὶ μάχεσθαι.

It is necessary to fight (= to start/keep fighting).

Aorist dynamic infinitive (completed stage of action):

βούλομαί σε εἰς τὰς Ἀθήνας ἐλθεῖν.

I want (for) you to go to Athens. (just once, a simple and sole occurrence of going)

αἰσχύνομαι ὑμῖν εἰπεῖν τἀληθῆ.

I'm ashamed to tell you the truth. (just once, a simple occurrence of telling, as in the previous example)

Declarative infinitive

A so-called declarative infinitive (see also declarative sentence) is mostly used in connexion with verbs (or verbal expressions) of saying, thinking and (sometimes) perceiving such as λέγω, φημί, ἀποκρίνομαι, ὑπισχνοῦμαι, ὁμολογῶ, ἀκούω, ὁρῶ etc. and it is usually used in oratio obliqua (in indirect speech or indirect discourse). The latter means that it represents a corresponding finite verb form of the oratio recta (of the direct speech or discourse), thus a declarative infinitive denotes both tense and aspect or stage of action. But the present infinitive represents either a present indicative or an imperfect one, and a perfect infinitive either a perfect indicative or a pluperfect one. A declarative infinitive with the particle ἂν is also the representative of a potential indicative or potential optative of the corresponding tense.

ᾤετο ἀποθανεῖσθαι. Future infinitive = future indicative.

He was thinking that he would die. (direct form: ἀποθανοῦμαι "I will die". )

ᾤοντο ὑμᾶς ἀποθανεῖν. Aorist infinitive = aorist indicative.

They were thinking that you died. (direct form: ἀπέθανον "they died".)

ἔφην σε ἀφικνεῖσθαι. Present infinitive = either present or imperfect indicative, according to context.

I said that you were arriving (at the very moment), or: I said that you had been arriving (some time ago) (direct forms: ἀφικνεῖται "He is arriving" and ἀφικνεῖτο "He was arriving", respectively).

...οὓς (anaphoric to τοὺς καλοὺς ἐκείνους καὶ μακροὺς λόγους) ἐν τοῖς μυρίοις ἐν Μεγάλῃ πόλει πρὸς Ἱερώνυμον τὸν ὑπὲρ Φιλίππου λέγοντα ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν ἔφη δεδημηγορηκέναι.

... which (anaphoric to "the fine these long orations") he said he had delivered as your spokesman before the Ten Thousand at Megalopolis in reply to Philip's champion Hieronymus. (the perfect infinitive δεδημηγορηκέναι can represent either a perfect indicative δεδημηγόρηκα "I have delivered orations" or a pluperfect one ἐδεδημηγορήκειν "I had delivered orations", the interpretation being left exclusivelly on contextual parameters)

ἔφασαν ἂν ἀποθανεῖν, εἰ τὰ ὅπλα παραδοῖεν. Potential infinitive = potential optative.

They said that they might die, if they surrender their arms (direct form: ἂν ἀποθάνοιμεν, εἰ... "we may die if...".).

ἔφασαν ἂν ἀποθανεῖν, εἰ τὰ ὅπλα παρέδοσαν. Potential infinitive = potential/unreal (conditional) indicative.

They said that they would have been dead, if they had surrendered their arms. (direct form: ἂν ἀπεθάνομεν, εἰ... "we would have died if...".)

Verbs that usually have a future reference, such as ὄμνυμι "swear", ὑπισχνοῦμαι "promise", ἐλπίζω "hope", ἀπειλέω "threaten", προσδοκάω "expect" etc., either take the declarative infinitive (mostly the future, but less often also the present, aorist or perfect infinitive, even the infinitive with ἀν representing a potential optative or indicative), and in this case indirect discourse is employed, or they are followed by the dynamic aorist (less often the present) infinitive, and they are constructed just like any verb of will, desire etc. The same constructional alternation is available in English (declarative content clause -a that clause- or to-infinitive), as shown below.

ὄμνυμι τὰ χρήματα ἀποδώσειν.

I swear that I will give back the money.

ὄμνυμι τὰ χρήματα ἀποδοῦναι.

I swear to give the money back.

But in the last example another reading is also possible, considering ἀποδοῦναι to be an aorist declarative infinitive : "I swear that I gave the money back."

The infinitive in subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions

The ("dynamic") infinitive is used instead of the indicative mood, with substantial difference in meaning, in certain subordinate clauses introduced by specific conjunctions: ὥστε (ὡς) "so as to, so that", πρίν (πρόσθεν... ἤ) "before" or "until" and relative adjectives introducing relative clauses of result, such as ὅσος "so much as enough to", οἷος "of such a short as to", ὃς or ὅστις "(so...) that he could", in clauses introduced by the prepositional prhases ἐφ' ᾧ or ἐφ' ᾧτε or with ὥστε "with the proviso that".

Note: a "declarative" infinitive is sometimes the mood of subordinated clauses in indirect speech, instead of a corresponding indicative (either a realis or conditional irrealis one) or optative mood, in modal assimilation to the main infinitive used to represent the independed clause of the direct speech; so after relative, temporal or conditional conjunctions such as: ὃς "who" or ὅστις "whoever", ἐπεὶ or ἐπειδή "since, when", ὅτε "when", εἰ "if" etc.

Subject of the infinitive

In general, Greek is a pro drop language or a null-subject language: it does not have to express the (always in nominative case) subject of a finite verb form (either pronoun or noun), unless it is communicatively or syntactically important (e.g. when emphasis and/or contrast is intended etc.). Concerning infinitives, the following can be said as an introduction to the infinitival syntax (case rules for the infinitival subject):

When the infinitive has a subject of its own (that is, when the subject of the infinitive is not co-referential either with the subject or the object of the governing verb form), then this word stands in the accusative case. When the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb (when the subjects are co-referential), then it is usually neither expressed nor repeated within the infinitival clause. This omission is noticed also when the subject of the infinitive, although not the subject of the governing verb, is constructed in a higher syntactic level, e.g. as (any) object of the governing verb in any oblique case, or as a dative of interest with an impersonal verb or verbal expression. But even in this case an accusative may be present or—more usually—understood by a predicate adjective, participle etc. in the accusative. These three main constructions available are desctribed in some detail in the sections below.

Accusative and infinitive

The construction where an accusative noun or pronoun functions as the subject of an infinitive is called accusative and infinitive (see also the Latin construction accusativus cum infinitivo (ACI). In Latin this construction is the rule even in cases where verb and infinitive have co-referential subjects). This construction can be used as an indirect speech mechanism, in many occasions interchangeable with a complementary declarative clause introduced by "ὅτι/"ὡς" (or a supplementary participle). But with some verbs (normally with verbs of thinking, as νομίζω, οἴομαι, ἡγέομαι, δοκέω etc., with the verb φημί "say, affirm, assert", with verbs denoting hope, oath or promise, such as ἐλπίζω "hope", ὄμνυμι "swear", ὑπισχνοῦμαι "promise", etc.) the infinitival construction is the rule in classical Greek. But it can be also in use with any infinitival use, no matter whether indirect speech is involved or not. In the following examples the infinitival clause is put in square brackets [] (the first translation given is a literal rendering, the second being a real English one):

λέγουσίν τινες [Σωκράτη σοφὸν εἶναι].

say some [Socrates _ACC wise _ACC to be _INF] (Subject and predicate adjective are in accusative case)

Some people say that Socrates is (or: was) wise.

νομίζουσιν [Σωκράτη σοφὸν εἶναι].

_{pro pl 3rd} think [Socrates _ACC wise _ACC to be _INF] (as stated before)

They consider Socrates to be (or: to have been) wise.

Oratio Recta/Direct speech for both the above examples: Σωκράτης σοφός ἐστιν (or ἦν). Socrates _NOM is (or: was) wise _NOM." (Subject and predicate adjective of the finite verb ἐστί in nominative case)

This construction is also the rule when the main verb form is impersonal/an impersonal expression and the infinitive functions as its subject (no indirect speech).

[ὑμᾶς _ACC] χρὴ [τὴν αὐτὴν γνώμην ἔχοντας _ACC τὴν ψῆφον φέρειν].

[You _ACC] is necessary [the same opinion having _ACC the vote to carry _INF] (Subject of the infinitive is in accusative; the participle ἔχοντας shows also concord with the accusative pronoun ὑμᾶς)

It is necessary for you to vote having the same opinion in mind.

Nominative and infinitive

When the subject of the infinitive is identical (coreferential) with the subject of the governing verb, then normally it is omitted and understood in the nominative case. The phenomenon is traditionally understood to be some kind of case attraction (for a modern perspective and relevant modern terminology see also big PRO and little pro). In the following examples infinitival clauses are bracketed [].

pro_i νομίζετε [PRO_i τοὺς πολεμίους ἂν νικῆσαι_INF]. (Potential infinitive)

pro_i think-you [PRO_i the enemies can-beat_INF] (literal translation)

You think (that) you can/could beat your enemy. (idiomatic translation)

Oratio Recta/Direct speech: Τοὺς πολεμίους ἂν νικήσαιμεν. "We could beat our enemy." (Potential optative)

[Πέρσης_{i NOM}] pro_i ἔφη [PRO_i εἶναι_INF].

[Persian_{i NOM}] pro_i said-he [PRO_i be_INF] (literal translation)

He_i said (that) he_i was (a) Persian_i. (idiomatic translation)

Πέρσης is a predicate noun in the nominative, showing case agreement with an understood and omitted pronoun (coreferential pro_i and PRO_i).

Oratio Recta/Direct speech: Πέρσης εἰμί. "I am (a) Persian".

Subject omitted and understood in an oblique case (genitive, dative or accusative)

When the infinitival subject is coreferent with a word constructed with the governing verb in a higher syntactic level, in other words, when the subject of the infinitive is itself (a second) argument of the governing verb, then it is normally omitted and understood either in the oblique case in which the second argument is put, or in the accusative as in any other accusative and infinitive construction.

νῦν σοι _DAT ἔξεστιν [ἀνδρὶ _DAT γενέσθαι].

now for-you_DAT is-possible [man _DAT to-become _INF]. literal translation

Now it is possible for you [to become a man]. idiomatic translation

(Predicate noun ἀνδρί "a man" in case agreement with the dative σοι "for you".)

ἐδέοντο τοῦ Κύρου _GEN [ὡς προθυμοτάτου _GEN πρὸς τὸν πόλεμον γενέσθαι].

were-begging-they Cyrus _GEN [as-willing-as-possible _GEN for war to-be _INF]. literal translation

They were begging Cyrus [to be as willing as possible for war]. idiomatic translation

(Predicate adjective προθυμοτάτου "willing" shows case agreement with the genitive object τοῦ Κύρου "Cyrus".)

In both of the above examples the case of the subject of the infinitive is governed by the case requirements of the main verb and the infinitive is appended as a third argument (Concerning the second example, in modern linguistic terms we have to do with an object control construction). Traditionally this construction is sometimes called (in Latin terminology) dativus cum infinitivo or genitivus cum infinitivo (dative with the infinitive or genitive with the infinitive respectively) and is considered to be a case attraction, the dative or genitive being used instead of a predicate in the accusative: ἄνδρα, ὡς προθυμότατον; see also below.

On the other hand, as it is shown by predicate adjectives or participial constituents of the infinitive clause, in the following examples an accusative is understood and must be supplied by context as the subject of the infinitive.

Λακεδαιμονίοις _DAT ἔξεστιν [ὑμῖν φίλους _ACC γενέσθαι].

For-Lacedaemonians _DAT is-possible [to-you friends _ACC] to-become _INF]. literal translation

It is possible for Lacedaemonians [to become friends to you]. idiomatic translation

(Predicate adjective φίλους "friends" is in the accusative, in case agreement with an understood and omitted accusative subject Λακεδαιμονίους "Lacedaemonians".)

δεόμεθ᾽ οὖν ὑμῶν _GEN [ἀκροάσασθαι τῶν λεγομένων, ἐνθυμηθέντας _ACC ὅτι...]

are-begging-we of-you _GEN [to-listen-carefully _INF of-what-is-being-said, keeping-in-mind _ACC that...] literal translation

We are begging you [to listen carefully of what is said, keeping in mind that...] idiomatic translation

(Participle ἐνθυμηθέντας "keeping in mind" in the accusative, agreeing in case with an omitted/understood accusative ὑμᾶς "you".)

This construction is obligatory when the infinitive is governed by a participle in any oblique case, more usually an attributive one (and in the nominative also). So an embedded participial clause like φάσκοντες εἶναι σοφοί "claiming that they are wise" or οἱ φάσκοντες εἶναι σοφοί "Those who claim that they are wise" is declined this way -in any of the following word ordering, but in slightly different each time meaning/topicalization:

(οἱ) φάσκοντες σοφοὶ _NOM εἶναι

(τοὺς) σοφοὺς φάσκοντας _ACC εἶναι

(τῶν) φασκόντων _GEN εἶναι σοφῶν _GEN

(τοῖς) σοφοῖς _DAT εἶναι φάσκουσι _DAT

In the above phrasal structuring the predicate adjective σοφοὶ "wise" is always put in the case of its governing participle φάσκοντες "claiming".