View source for Kejawèn

{{Short description|Folk religion of Javanese people}}
{{about|polytheistic Javanism|monotheistic Javanism|Kapitayan}}
{{Infobox religion
| name               = Polytheistic Javanism
| native_name        = {{Script/Java|ꦏꦗꦮꦺꦤ꧀}}<br>{{Script/Java|Kajawèn}}
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| type               = [[Folk religion]]
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| governance         = National Javanism Religious Council of the Republic Indonesia
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| area               = [[Central Java|Central]] and [[East Java|eastern]] hemisphere of [[Java]]{{sfn|Oey|2000|p=58-59}}{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=16}}
| language           = {{plainlist|
* [[Old Javanese language|Old Javanese]] (mainly used in rituals)
* [[Javanese language|Javanese]] (mainly Bagongan Javanese)}}
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| headquarters       = [[Central Java]]
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| recognition        = Officially recognized by [[Indonesian government]]
| separated_from     = [[Kapitayan]] (monotheistic Javanism)
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| members            = [[Javanese people|Javanese]]
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{{Religion at Java}}
{{Anthropology of religion}}

'''''Kejawèn''''' ({{langx|jv|ꦏꦗꦮꦺꦤ꧀|Kajawèn}}) or '''Javanism''', also called '''Kebatinan''', ''Agama Jawa'', and ''[[Aliran kepercayaan|Kepercayaan]]'', is a [[Java]]nese cultural tradition, consisting of an amalgam of [[animism|Animistic]], [[Buddhist]], [[Islamic]] and [[Hindu]] aspects. It is rooted in [[Javanese people|Javanese]] history and religiosity, [[Syncretism|syncretizing]] aspects of different religions and traditions.

== Definitions ==
[[File:Wayang Kulit of Semar.jpg|thumb|A [[Wayang]] puppet representing [[Semar]]]]The term ''kebatinan'' is being used interchangeably with ''kejawèn'',{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}} ''Agama Jawa''{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=501}} and ''[[Aliran kepercayaan|Kepercayaan]]'',{{sfn|Hooker|1988|p=196}}{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=539, note 30}} although they are not exactly the same:
* Kebatinan: "the science of the inner",{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}} "inwardness",{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=539, note 30}} derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden".{{sfn|Levenda|2011|p=72}}
* Kejawèn: "Javanism",{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}}{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=16}} the culture and religious beliefs and practices of the [[Javanese people]] of [[Central Java]] and [[East Java]].{{sfn|Oey|2000|p=58-59}}{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=16}} It is "not a religious category, but refers to an ethic and a style of life that is inspired by Javanist thinking".{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=17}}
* Agama Jawa: "The Javanese religion"{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=501}}
* [[Aliran kepercayaan|Kepercayaan]]: "belief",{{sfn|Hooker|1988|p=196}} "faith",{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=539, note 30}} full term: ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'',<ref group=web name="UNHCR">[https://archive.today/20130615104354/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,IRBC,,IDN,,41501c1c1c,0.html Indonesia: East Java native religion called Aliran Kepercayaan or Kepercayaan Kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, aka ''Pangistu''; its status and treatment of its members by Muslim fundamentalists (2003-June 2004)]</ref> "Believer in One Mighty God".{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=112}} "Kepercayaan" is an official cover term for various forms of mysticism in Indonesia. According to Caldarola, it "is not an apt characterization of what the mystical groups have in common".{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=539, note 30}} It includes ''kebatinan'', ''kejiwan'' and ''kerohanian''.{{sfn|Caldarola|1982|p=539, note 30}}

''Kebatinan'' is the inward cultivation of inner peace, rooted in pre-Islamic traditions,{{sfn|Levenda|2011|p=73}} whereas ''kejawèn'' is outward and community-oriented, manifesting in rituals and practices.{{sfn|Levenda|2011|p=73}}

==History==
{{Main|Java|Javanese culture|Hinduism in Java}}
Java has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious belief, including animism, spirit cults, and cosmology.

===Hinduism and Buddhism===
{{Main|Hinduism in Indonesia|Buddhism in Indonesia|Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Wajangfiguur van karbouwenhuid de mythische vogel Garuda voorstellend TMnr 1772-697.jpg|thumb|A [[Wayang]] puppet representing [[Garuda]]]][[South Asia|Indian]] influences came firstly in the form of [[Hinduism]], which reached the [[List of islands of Indonesia|Indonesian Archipelago]] as early as the first century.{{sfn|McDaniel|2010}} By the fourth century, the kingdom of [[Kutai]] in [[East Kalimantan]], [[Tarumanagara]] in [[West Java]], and Holing ([[Kalingga]]) in [[Central Java]], were among the early Hindu states established in the region. Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms are: [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], famous for the construction of the majestic [[Prambanan]] temple, followed by [[Kediri (historical kingdom)|Kediri]] and [[Singhasari]]. Since then Hinduism, along with [[Buddhism]], spread across the archipelago and reached the peak of its influence in the fourteenth century. The last and largest of the Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires, that of the [[Majapahit]], influenced the entire Indonesian archipelago.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

[[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] penetrated deeply into all aspects of society, blending with the indigenous tradition and culture.{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}} One [[Conduit (spiritualism)|conduit]] for this was the [[asceticism|ascetic]]s, called "resi," (Sanskrit [[rishi]]) who taught a variety of mystical practices. A resi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, Brahmanas clerics and ''pudjangga'' (sacred literati) legitimized rulers and linked [[Hinduism|Hindu]] cosmology to their political needs.{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}} Presently, small [[Hindu]] enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large [[Hindu]] population along the eastern coast nearest [[Bali]], especially around the town of [[Banyuwangi]].

===Islam===
{{Main|Islam in Indonesia}}

Java adopted{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}{{refn|group=note|Bruinessen: "Java was converted to Islam quite late; the process started seriously around 1500CE, that is, at the time of the great Alevi rebellions. Adoption of Islam is perhaps a better term than conversion, for the Javanese were deliberately syncretistic. For many of the new Muslims Islam, especially in its Sufi variety, was a welcome additional source of spiritual power, not a substitute for what they already had."{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}}} Islam around 1500 CE.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} Islam was first accepted by the elites and upper echelons of society, which contributed to its further spread and acceptance. Sufism and other versions of [[Folk Islam]] were most easily integrated into the existing folk religion of Java.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} The learned versions of Sufi Islam and Shari`a-oriented Islam were integrated at the courts, blending with the rituals and myths of the existing Hindu-Buddhist culture.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} Clifford Geertz described this as [[abangan]] and [[priyayi]]; "the lower class and elite varieties of Javanese syncretism".{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}

The [[Kyai]], the Muslim scholar of the writ became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal [[Clergy|priesthood]], but the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch colonial government]] established an elaborate rank order for the mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese ''[[pesantren]]'' (Islamic schools), The ''Kyai'' perpetuated the tradition of the ''resi''. Students around him provided his needs, even [[peasant]]s around the school.{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}}

===Christianity===
{{Main|Christianity in Indonesia}}
Early 16th century, [[Christianity]] was brought to Java by Portuguese traders and missionaries, from the [[Dutch Reformed Church]], and in the 20th century also by Roman Catholics, such as the [[Jesuits]] and the [[Divine Word Missionaries]]. Nowadays there are [[Christians|Christian]] communities, mostly Reformed in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].

=== Theosophy===

Kejawèn is also influenced by [[Theosophy]]. Theosophy was a very popular religion among Dutch residents in the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. Also, many influential Indonesians joined the Theosophical Society. The Theosophical Society "played a role in the growth" of Kejawèn in the early and mid-twentieth century, and several kebatinan groups were founded by Theosophists. The kebatinan Budi Setia group, founded in 1949, considered "its formal transformation into a theosophical lodge".<ref>Sedgwick, M. J. (2017). Western Sufism: From the Abbasids to the new age.</ref>

==Islam and kebatinan==
Although Java is predominately Muslim, ''kejawen'' the syncretic Javanese culture, still plays a cultural undercurrent among some Javanese.{{sfn|Mulder|2005}}

Some Javanese texts relate stories about Syekh Siti Jenar (also known as Syekh Lemah Abang) who had conflicts with [[Wali Sanga]], the nine Islamic scholars in Java, and the [[Sultanate of Demak]].{{sfn|Headley|2004|p=367-368}}{{sfn|Azra|2006|p=129}}

With the Islamisation of Java there emerged a loosely structured society of religious leadership, revolving around [[kyai]]s, Islamic experts possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic [[Folklore|lore]], [[belief]], and practice.{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}} The Kyais are the principal intermediaries between the village masses and the realm of the [[supernatural]]. However, this very looseness of Kyai's leadership structure has promoted [[schism (religion)|schism]]. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught [[mysticism]] and those who sought reformed Islam with modern scientific concepts.

As a result, the Javanese recognize two broad streams of religious commitment:{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=15}}{{refn|group=note|Anthropologist Clifford Geertz made a well-known, though criticised, threefold distinction between ''abangan'', ''antri'' and ''[[priyayi]]''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=21-22}} The ''priyayi'' are the descendants of the high class and court members, were gurus taught the Hindu-Buddhist art of inner cultivation,{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=21}} which stayed alive in the interior areas of Java.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=16}} Geertz noticed that the ''priyayi'' play a central role in the teaching of ''kejawen'' and ''kebatinan'' to the ''abangan''.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=21}}}}
# ''[[Santri]]'' or ''putihan'' ("pure ones"), what the majority of [[Javanese people|Javanese]] people tend to follow are those who pray, performing the five obligatory daily ritual prayers.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=15}} They are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice,{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}} and oppose the ''abangan'', who they consider to be heterodox.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=15-16}}
# ''[[Abangan]]'', "the red ones", who do not strictly observe the Islamic rituals.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=15}} They have mixed pre-Islamic [[animism|animistic]] and Hindu-Buddhist concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief,{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}} and emphasize the importance of the purity of the inner person, the ''batin''.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=15}}

This distinction between "the High Islam or scripturalist, shari`a-oriented Islam of the `ulama"{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} and "living local Islam"{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} or "[[Folk Islam]]"{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} or "popular Islam"{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} is not restricted to Java but can be found in other Islamic countries as well.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}

[[Ernest Gellner]] has developed an influential model of Muslim society, in which this dichotomy is central:{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}
{{blockquote|He sees a dialectical relationship between the two, with periods of scripturalist dominance followed by relapses into emotional, mystical, magical folk Islam. Modernity — especially urbanisation and mass literacy — unsettles the balance between the two, by eroding the social bases of folk Islam. An irreversible shift to scripturalist Islam occurs, which is in Gellner’s view is the equivalent of secularisation in the West.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}}}

Bruinessen finds this too limited, and distinguishes three overlapping spheres:{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}
# Shari`a-oriented Islam,
# Sufism (mystical Islam, which has its learned and popular variants),
# The periphery of local rituals, local shrines, local spirit cults, and heterodox beliefs and practices in general.{{refn|group=note|Bruinessen: "This third sphere was no doubt in most parts of the world for many years the one that had by far the greatest numbers of adherents. It has often been through Sufism that people from the heterodox periphery gradually moved towards some degree of conformity with orthodoxy."{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}}}

Javanese syncretistic religiousness has a strong popular base, outnumbering the santri and the support for Islamic political parties.{{sfn|Mulder|2005|p=22-24}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}} Choy relates this to a Javanese apparent openness to new religions, but filtering out only those elements which fit into the Javanese culture.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=109}} Choy mentions several reasons for this nominal Islamic identity:{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=109-110}}
# The Islamic scholars in Java have been trained in curricula that were geared toward social conditions of two or three centuries ago, lacking the ability to impart the spirit and sense of Islam;{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=109}}
# The inability to summarise the principles of Islam in understandable basic points that can be applied to daily life;{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=109-110}}
# Kebatinan can be learned and understood without the need to learn Arabic.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=110}}

In the early 20th century, several groups became formalised, developing systematised teachings and rituals, thus offering a 'high' form of ''abangan'' religiosity, as an alternative to the 'high' Islam.{{sfn|Masud|Salvatore|van Bruinessen|2009|p=148}} Bruinessen opines that the kebatinan-movements is a deliberate rejection of scriptural Islam,{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000b}} which arose out of "[[folk Islam]]".{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}

==Characteristics==
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Java man gezeten onder een waringinboom TMnr 60020257.jpg|thumb|A Javanese man meditating under a [[Banyan]] tree. [[Dutch East Indies]], before 1940.]]

===Aim===
{{See also|Batin (Islam)}}

''Kebatinan'' is derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden",{{sfn|Levenda|2011|p=72}} or "inner self".{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=107}} It is a metaphysical search for harmony within one's inner self, connection with the universe, and with an Almighty God.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=107}} ''Kebatinan'' believes in a "super-consciousness" that can be contacted through meditation.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=110}}

===Beliefs===
''Kebatinan'' is a combination of metaphysics, mysticism, and other esoteric doctrines{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=107}} from Animistic, Hinduistic, Buddhist, and Islamic origins.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Although the Javanese culture is tolerant and open to new religions, only those qualities accepted and filtered fit into the Javanese culture, character, and personality.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=109}} Javanese ideals combine human wisdom (''wicaksana''), psyche (''waskita''), and perfection (''sempurna''). The follower must control their passions, eschewing earthly riches and comforts, so that they may one day reach enlightened harmony and union with the spirit of the universe.

According to Choy, the ''Kebatinan'' have no certain prophet,{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=108}} sacred book,{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=108}} nor distinct religious festivals and rituals. Nevertheless, various kebatinan-movements have their foundational writings and founders.{{sfn|Choy|1999}}{{sfn|Masud|Salvatore|van Bruinessen|2009|p=148}}

A ''kebatinan'' practitioner can identify with one of the six officially recognized religions, while still subscribing to the ''kebatinan'' belief and way of life.

===Membership===
Although ''kebatinan'' is a predominantly Javanese tradition, it has also attracted practitioners from other ethnic and religious groups, such as Chinese and Buddhists,{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=111-112}} and foreigners from Australia and Europe.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=112}} President [[Suharto]] counted himself as one of its adherents.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.{{sfn|Beatty|1999}}

===Official recognition===
Although [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]], Indonesia's national philosophical foundation, recognizes only the "belief in the one and only God"—which is often justified as the sole recognition of [[monotheism]] in the country{{refn|group=note|Although it was intended for pantheism to flourish as well; the enforcement of monotheism in Indonesia has increased steadily since 1970.}}—religions not recognized by the government are also tolerated.{{sfn|Mulder|2005}} A broad plurality of religions and sects exist. In the middle of 1956, the [[Yogyakarta]] representative of the [[Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia)|Department of Religious Affairs]] reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 22 were in [[West Java]], 35 were in [[Central Java]],  and 6 in [[East Java]].{{sfn|van der Kroef|1961}}

These include also kebatinan-groups, such as Sumarah.  This loosely organized current of thought and practice was legitimized in the 1945 constitution,{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} but failed to attain official recognition as a religion.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=112}} In 1973 it was recognized as ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'' (Indonesian: Belief in One Mighty God{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=112}}{{refn|group=note|''Esa'' has ambiguous meaning which doesn't always mean one, as a result this is an imperfect translation of the phrase.}}), but withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religion and placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=112}}

== Practices ==
{{See also|Tapas (Indian religions)}}

{{Indonesian mythology and folklore}}A variety of practices is being used in kebatinan to acquire ''ilmu''{{sfn|Retsikas|2012|p=179}}{{refn|group=note|knowledge, power}}, namely ''tiraka''{{sfn|Christomy|2008|p=171}}{{sfn|Retsikas|2012|p=179}}{{sfn|Hughes-Freeland|2008|p=189}}{{refn|group=note|"Fasting",{{sfn|Christomy|2008|p=171}} "ascetic exercises",{{sfn|Retsikas|2012|p=179}} "spiritual techniques"{{sfn|Hughes-Freeland|2008|p=189}}}} and ''tapa''{{sfn|Christomy|2008|p=171}} or ''tapabrata''.{{sfn|Hughes-Freeland|2008|p=189}}{{refn|group=note|[[Asceticism|"austerity"]],{{sfn|Christomy|2008|p=171}} "spiritual techniques"{{sfn|Hughes-Freeland|2008|p=189}}}}

Many Kebatinan followers practice in their own way to seek spiritual and emotional relief. These practices are not performed in churches or mosques, but at home or in caves or on mountain perches. Meditation in Javanese culture is a search for inner self wisdom and to gain physical strength. This tradition is passed down from generation to generation.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

===Meditation===
There are several ''tapa'':
* tapa Ngalong (meditation by hanging from a tree)
* tapa Kungkum (meditation under a small waterfall or meeting point of 2-3 rivers / ''Tempuran'' / ''Tjampuhan'')

===Fasting===
Fasting is a common practice employed by Javanese spiritualists in order to attain discipline of mind and body to get rid of material and emotional desires:
* pasa Mutih (abstention from eating anything that is salted and sweetened, only eating/drinking pure water & rice)
* pasa Senen-Kemis (fasting on Monday-Thursday)
* pasa Ngebleng (fasting for a longer period, usually 3-5-7 days)

===Animistic worship===
''Kebatinan'' often implies animistic worship, because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artifacts, and grave sites of important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a ''dukun'' or healer is sought.

===Other practices===
Other practices include:
* tapa Pati-Geni (avoiding fire or light for a day or days and isolating oneself in dark rooms),
* tapa Ngadam  (stand/walk on foot from sunset till sunset, 24 hours in Silence)

==Historical texts==
Kebatinan and ''kejawen'' practices are extensively written about in texts that are held in the [[Sonobudoyo library]] in [[Yogyakarta]], and the main [[Kraton Libraries]] of [[Surakarta]] and Yogyakarta.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Many of the texts are deliberately elliptical so that those who do not work with either initiates or teachers are unable to ascertain or understand the esoteric doctrines and practices.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} In quite a few cases codified texts with secret systems to "unlock" the meanings are employed.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}}

But according to Bruinessen, the writing down of kebatinan teachings was a novelty which appeared with the institutionalisation of the kebatinan-movements in the beginning of the 20th century.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000b}}

==Kebatinan organisations==
The appearance of formal kebatinan movements reflects the modernisation of Indonesia.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}} Kebatinan movements appeared early in the 1900s in urban traditional elite circles,{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}} together with the rise of nationalism and the [[Muhammadiyah]], a modernist Islamic movement.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}} Hardopusoro, one of the earliest kebatinan-movements, had strong links with the [[Theosophical Society]].{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}} Some remained very elitist, while others also accepted lower urban and rural followings, thereby popularising abangan, or syncretistic Islam, as an alternative to shari`a-oriented Islam.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}

After Indonesia gained independence in 1945, the kebatinan received political support and attracted large followings.{{sfn|Masud|Salvatore|van Bruinessen|2009|p=148}} Kebatinan-movements were seen by secular nationalistic elites as allies against the rise of [[Islamism|political Islam]].{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000b}} The political struggle between the Muslim parties and the Communists and Nationalists lead to a sharper demarcation between syncretistic and shari`a-oriented Islam, whereby most kebatinan movements affiliated with the Communist or Nationalist Parties.{{sfn|van Bruinessen|2000a}}{{refn|group=note|The relation between religion c.q. "spirituality", politics and (post-)colonial struggles is not unique to Indonesia. In India, [[Hindu reform movements]] involved both religious and social reforms, for example the [[Brahmo Samaj]],{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} [[Vivekananda]], who modernised [[Advaita Vedanta]],{{sfn|Rambachan|1994}} [[Aurobindo]]{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} and [[Mahatma Gandhi]].{{sfn|Sinari|2000}} In Buddhist countries, [[Buddhist modernism]] was a response against the colonial powers and the western culture.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} In Sri Lanka, [[Theravada Buddhism]] was revitalised in the struggle against the colonial rule. The [[Theosophical Society]] played an essential role here.{{sfn|McMahan|2008|p=98}}{{sfn|Gombrich|1996|p=185-188}}{{sfn|Fields|1992|p=83-118}} In China, [[Taixu]] propagated a [[Humanistic Buddhism]], which is again endorsed by Jing Hui, the (former) abbott of [[Bailin Monastery]].{{sfn|Feuchtwang|2010|p=189}} In Japan, Buddhism adopted nationalistic politics to survive in the modern era, in which it lost support from the government.{{sfn|Victoria|2006}}{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} Zen was popularised in the west by adherents of this modern Buddhism, especially [[D.T. Suzuki]] and [[Hakuun Yasutani]].{{sfn|Fields|1992}}{{sfn|McMahan|2008}}}}

Umbrella organisations representing several hundred kebatinan organisations, lobbied to attain legitimacy and recognition as an official religion.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}}{{sfn|Hooker|1988|p=196}} They are registered at the HKP (Himpunan Penghayat Kepercayaan), which is controlled by the PAKEM (Pengawas Aliran Kepercayaan Masyarakat).{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} After the Suharto-era (1967-1998), the kebatinan-movements lost political support,{{sfn|Masud|Salvatore|van Bruinessen|2009|p=148}} and have become less dynamic, their adherents avoiding public engagement.{{sfn|Ooi|2004|p=719}}

Altogether several hundred kebatinan-groups are or have been registered, the best-known of which are:{{refn|group=note|See {{sfn|van Bruinessen|Howell|2007|p=225-226}} for a longer list of Kebatinan organisations.}}
* Subud{{sfn|van Bruinessen|Howell|2007|p=226}}{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}}
* Sumarah{{sfn|van Bruinessen|Howell|2007|p=226}}{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}}
* Pangestu{{sfn|van Bruinessen|Howell|2007|p=226}}{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}}
* Sapta Dharma{{sfn|van Bruinessen|Howell|2007|p=226}}{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}}
* Majapahit Pancasila{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}}

===Subud===
{{main|Subud}}

Subud was founded in the 1920s by [[Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo]]. The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia. The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the ''[[Latihan|latihan kejiwaan]]'', which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force". The aim of Subud is to attain perfection of character according to the will of God.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=118}} Only when passion, heart and mind are separated from the inner feeling is it possible to make contact with the "Great Life Force" which permeates everywhere.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=119}}

Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. He also rejected the classification of Subud as a kebatinan organization. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000.{{sfn|Hunt|2003|p=122}}

The name ''Subud'' is said to be formed from the Sanskrit words ''susila'' ("the good character of man"{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=118}}), ''[[bodhi]]'' ("the force of the inner self"{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=118}}) and ''[[dharma]]'' ("trust in God"{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=118}}).<ref name="SubudBritain" group="web">[http://www.subud.org.uk/about-subud.html SubudBritain, ''About Subud'']</ref>

===Sumarah===
Sumarah was formed in the 1930s by Pak Hardo, Pak Soekino and Pak Sutadi, without a formal organisation.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=115}} In those early days, the younger members were taught ''kanoman'', occult practices including invulnerability for knives and guns. This was regarded as essential in the struggle against the Dutch colonial powers.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=115}} Around 1950, when Indonesia became an independent nation, Sumarah was streamlined and organised by Dr. Surono. The emphasis shifted from magic to "surrender to God".{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=115}} From 1957 on internal struggles surfaced between dr. Surono and the founders Pak Hardo and Pak Sadina, leading to a change in leadership by dr. Ary Muthy in 1967.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=115}}

Sumarah theology maintains that humankind's soul is like the holy spirit, a spark from the Divine Essence, which means that we are in essence similar to God. In other words, "One can find God within oneself," a belief similar to the "[[Ātman (Hinduism)|I]]=[[Brahman|God]]" theory found in Hindu-Javanese literature.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=114}}

According to Sumarah theology, man and his physical and spiritual world are divided into three parts:{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=114}}
* The physical body and brain. One section, ''Sukusma'', governs the passions. In the brain, the faculty of thinking has two functions:
** To record memories
** To serve as a means of communion with God
* The invisible world, which is situated within the chest. It is the [[Jiva|Jiwa]], the ineffable soul, which provides the driving forces governing thought and reason. It is here that the deeper feeling (''Rasa'') is located.
* The more elusive and sublime world. The most elusive and sublime world is hidden somewhere near the anatomical heart.

Sumarah's conception of God is different from Islam. It has a [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] vision of reality, considering God to be present in all living beings.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=114}}

===Pangestu===
Pangestu was founded in 1949.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=117}} Its doctrine was revealed in 1932 to Sunarto Mertowarjoyo, and written down in the ''Setat Sasangka Djati'' by R.T. Harjoparakowo and R. Trihardono Sumodiharjo Pangastu.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=117}} It describes the way to obtain ''wahyu'', the blessing of God.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=117}}

===Sapta Dharma===
Sapta Dharma was founded in 1952 by Harjo Sapura, after he received a revelation.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}} According to Sri Pawenang, it was God's wish to provide the Indonesian people with a new spirituality in a time of crisis.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116}} Its aim is to free man of his passions.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=117}}

According to Sapta Dharma teachings, ''suji'' (meditation) is necessary to pierce through different layers of obstacles to reach [[Semar]], the guardian spirit of Java.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=116-117}} Theory and practice resemble Hindu [[Kundalini yoga]], aiming at awakening the Kundalini energy and guiding it through the [[chakra]]s.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=117}}

===Majapahit Pancasila===
[[Majapahit]] Pancasila{{refn|group=note|Full "[[Hinduism|Sanaata Dharma]] Majapahit Pancasila",{{sfn|Research School of Pacific Studies|1980|p=217}} acronym "Sadhar Mapan"{{sfn|Research School of Pacific Studies|1980|p=217}}}} was founded by W. Hardjanta Pardjapangarsa.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=119}} It is based in Javanese Hindu-yogic practices,{{sfn|Tarling|1992|p=563}} c.q. [[Kundalini yoga]],{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=119}} rather than Balinese ritual practice as is prevalent in [[Parisada Hindu Dharma]].{{sfn|Tarling|1992|p=563}} According to Hardjanta, his meditation practices also lead to invulnerability for knives, daggers and other weapons.{{sfn|Choy|1999|p=122}}

==Spread of Kebatinan==

===Malaysia===
Kebatinan beliefs have spread to some parts of Malaysia, wherein certain individuals have combined it with Islamic concepts (e.g. proclaiming themselves to be new-age Islamic prophets, but delivering messages that are a combination of Islamic and kebatinan beliefs). This has led to the Malaysian Islamic authorities declaring elements of kebatinan to be "syirik" ([[Shirk (Islam)|shirk]]) and un-Islamic. Kebatinan interpretations of Islam are widespread in Malaysia among practitioners of [[silat]], traditional healers, and some preachers (such as [[Ariffin Mohammed]] and other self-proclaimed Islamic prophets).

===Netherlands===
In the Netherlands, the former colonial power in Indonesia, some kebatinan-groups are active.{{sfn|Renard|2010}}

===Singapore===
Since the majority of Singaporean Malays are of Indonesian descent, particularly from Java, many of Kebatinan are still practiced usually among older people. However, the practice is still widespread among some Javanese Silat and [[Kuda Kepang]] groups, and also traditional shamans.

===Suriname===
{{Main article|Javanism in Suriname}}
It was brought to [[Suriname]] by [[Javanese Surinamese|Javanese]] workers in the late 19th century.

==See also==
{{Portal|Indonesia}}'''Belief systems'''{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* {{anli|Aliran Kepercayaan}}
* {{anli|Balinese Hinduism}}
* {{anli|Hinduism in Java}}
* {{anli|Indonesian Esoteric Buddhism}}
* {{anli|Kaharingan}}
* {{anli|Kapitayan}}
* {{anli|Marapu}}
* {{anli|Mythology of Indonesia}}
* {{anli|Parmalim}}
* {{anli|Saminism Movement}}
* {{anli|Sunda Wiwitan}}
{{div col end}}
'''Gods and rituals'''
{{div col|colwidth=100em}}
* {{anli|Dewi Sri}}
* {{anli|Hyang}}
* {{anli|Javanese sacred places}}
* {{anli|Kuda Lumping}}
* {{anli|Nyai Roro Kidul}}
* {{anli|Slametan}}
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|30em}}
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

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==Further reading==
* {{Citation | last =Fajfrlíková | first =Pavla | year =2018 | title =Kejawen as the Traditional Mystical Belief on the Contemporary Java Island | publisher =Kulturní studia / Cultural Studies| url =http://kulturnistudia.cz/kejawen-as-the-traditional-mystical-belief-on-the-contemporary-java-island/ | ref =none }}
* {{Citation | last =Geertz | first =Clifford | year =1976 | title =Religion of Java | publisher =University of Chicago Press | ref =none }}
* {{Citation | last =Jones | first =David | year =2010 | title =Magic & Mysticism in Java | url =http://www.newdawnmagazine.com/articles/magic-mysticism-in-java | ref =none }}
* {{Citation | last1 =Kinney | first1 =Ann R. | last2 =Klokke | first2 =Marijke J. | last3 =Kieven | first3 =Lydia | year =2003 | title =Worshiping Siva and Buddha: The Temple Art of East Java | publisher =University of Hawaii Press | ref =none }}
* {{Citation | last =Retsikas | first =Konstantinos | year =2012 | title =Becoming: An Anthropological Approach to Understandings of the Person in Java | publisher =Anthem Press | ref =none }}
* {{Citation | last =Stange | first =Paul | year =n.d. | title =The evolution of Sumarah | chapter=chapter 1 Exploring Javanism | url =http://paulstange.net/evolution.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224014804/http://paulstange.net/evolution.pdf | archive-date=February 24, 2021 | ref =none }}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210127093100/http://www.joglosemar.co.id/kejawen/ Kejawen, a Javanese traditional spiritual teaching - Joglosemar Online]
* [http://www.sahasraadhipura.org/ A center for Javanese Metaphysics and Kundalini Yoga]
* [http://wichm.home.xs4all.nl/javmys1.html Sumarah]
* [http://sumarah.tripod.com SUMARAH: A STUDY OF THE ART OF LIVING]
* [http://indahnesia.com/indonesia/JAWREL/religion.php IndaNehsia.com, ''Religion at Java''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230231735/http://indahnesia.com/indonesia/JAWREL/religion.php |date=2013-12-30 }}
<!---blacklisted links
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~wichm/javmys1.html Javanese mystical movements]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~wichm/wirid.html WIRID, Javanese mystical teachings]--->
{{Indonesia topics}}
{{Islam in Indonesia}}
{{Religion topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Javanese Beliefs}}
[[Category:Javanese culture]]
[[Category:Javanese spiritual movements]]
[[Category:Javanese mythology]]
[[Category:Islam in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Religion in Indonesia]]
[[Category:Religious syncretism in Asia]]