View source for Marshallese language

{{Short description|Micronesian language of the Marshall Islands}}
{{use mdy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Marshallese
| altname = Kajin M̧ajeļ<ref name="eth">{{cite web
  | title = Marshallese
  | publisher = [[SIL International]]
  | url = http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=mah
  | access-date = December 5, 2012
  | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411065329/http://www.ethnologue.com/language/mah
  | archive-date=2015-04-11 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
| nativename = <small>(new orthography)</small> {{lang|mh|Kajin M̧ajel‌̧}}<br/><small>(old orthography)</small> {{lang|mh|Kajin Majōl}}
| states = [[Marshall Islands]]
| speakers = 55,000
| ethnicity= [[Marshallese people|Marshallese]]
| date = 1979
| ref = e18
| familycolor = Austronesian
| fam2 = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3 = [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
| fam4 = [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]]
| fam5 = Micronesian Proper
| fam6 = Nuclear Micronesian
| nation = {{flag|Marshall Islands}}
| script = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Marshallese orthography|Marshallese alphabet]])
| iso1 = mh
| iso2 = mah
| iso3 = mah
| glotto = mars1254
| glottorefname = Marshallese
|map=Micronesian languages.en.svg
|mapcaption=Map of [[Micronesian languages]]; Marshallese is spoken in the orange area.
}}
{{Culture of the Marshall Islands}}
'''Marshallese''' ({{lang-mh|Kajin M̧ajel‌̧|link=no}} or {{lang|mh|Kajin Majōl}} {{IPAc-mh|kajin mhahjelh}}), also known as '''Ebon''', is a [[Micronesian language]] spoken in the [[Marshall Islands]]. The language of the [[Marshallese people]], it is spoken by nearly all of the country's population of 59,000, making it the principal language.<ref name=Pop>{{cite web |title=Population, total – Marshall Islands |publisher=The World Bank |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=MH}}</ref> There are also roughly 27,000 Marshallese citizens residing in the [[United States]],<ref name=Ruststaff>{{cite web |author=Susanne Ruststaff |date=Dec 31, 2019 |title=They came here after the U.S. irradiated their islands. Now they face an uncertain future |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2019-12-31/marshall-islands-uncertain-future-us-marshallese-spokane}}</ref> nearly all of whom speak Marshallese, as well as residents in other countries such as [[Nauru]] and [[Kiribati]].

There are two major dialects, the western [[Ralik Chain|Rālik]] and the eastern [[Ratak Chain|Ratak]].

== Classification ==
Marshallese, a [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian language]], is a member of the Eastern [[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]] subgroup of the [[Austronesian languages]].<ref name="hgb">{{harvp|Willson|2002|loc=1.1 General background}}</ref> The closest linguistic relatives of Marshallese are the other Micronesian languages, including [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]], [[Nauruan language|Nauruan]], [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]], [[Mokilese language|Mokilese]], [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]], [[Carolinian people|Refaluwash]], and [[Kosraean language|Kosraean]]. Marshallese shows 50% lexical similarity with [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]], [[Mokilese language|Mokilese]], and [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]].<ref name="eth" />

Within the [[Micronesia]]n archipelago, Marshallese—along with the rest of the Micronesian language group—is not as closely related to the more ambiguously classified Oceanic language [[Yapese language|Yapese]] in [[Yap State]], or to the [[Polynesian outlier]] languages [[Kapingamarangi language|Kapingamarangi]] and [[Nukuoro language|Nukuoro]] in [[Pohnpei State]], and even less closely related to the non-Oceanic languages [[Palauan language|Palauan]] in [[Palau]] and [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] in the [[Mariana Islands]].

== Variation ==
The [[Republic of the Marshall Islands]] contains 34 [[atolls]] that are split into two chains, the eastern [[Ratak Chain]] and the western [[Rālik Chain]].<ref name="hgb" /> These two chains have different dialects, which differ mainly [[Lexicon|lexically]], and are [[mutually intelligible]].<ref name="eth" /><ref name="hgb" /> The atoll of [[Ujelang]] in the west was reported to have "slightly less homogeneous speech",<ref name="eth" /> but it has been uninhabited since 1980.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=International Legal Materials|volume=39|issue=5|year=2000|title=Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal: In the Matter of the People of Enewetak|pages=1214–1233|doi=10.1017/S0020782900008640|s2cid=232252215}}</ref>

The Ratak and Rālik dialects differ phonetically in how they deal with stems that begin with double consonants.<ref name="hgb" /> Ratak Marshallese inserts a vowel to separate the consonants, while Ralik adds a vowel before the consonants (and pronounced an unwritten consonant phoneme {{IPA|/j/}} before the vowel).<ref name="hgb" /> For example, the stem {{lang|mh|kkure}} 'play' becomes {{lang|mh|ikkure}} in Rālik Marshallese and {{lang|mh|kukure}} in Ratak Marshallese.<ref name="hgb" /><ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2K.htm#kukure MED: {{lang|mh|kukure}}]</ref>

== Status ==
[[File:Stop the Spread of Germs updated (Marshallese).pdf|thumb|A poster sponsored by [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] about [[COVID-19 pandemic|COVID-19]] prevention in Marshallese.]]
Marshallese is the official language of the [[Marshall Islands]] and enjoys vigorous use.<ref name="eth" /> As of 1979, the language was spoken by 43,900 people in the Marshall Islands.<ref name="eth" /> in 2020 the number was closer to 59,000.<ref name=Pop/> Additional groups of speakers in other countries including [[Nauru]] and the [[United States]] increase the total number of Marshallese speakers, with approximately 27,000 Marshallese-Americans living in the [[United States]]<ref name=Ruststaff/> Along with [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]] and [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]], Marshallese stands out among Micronesian languages in having tens of thousands of speakers; most Micronesian languages have far fewer.<ref name="w2008pp6-7">{{harvp|Willson|2008|pp=6–7}}</ref> A dictionary and at least two Bible translations have been published in Marshallese.<ref name="eth"/>

==Phonology==

===Consonants===
Marshallese has a large consonant inventory, and each consonant has some type of secondary articulation ([[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]], [[velarization]], or [[Labialization|rounding]]).<ref name="w1">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=1}}</ref> The palatalized consonants are regarded as "light", and the velarized and rounded consonants are regarded as "heavy", with the rounded consonants being both velarized and [[labialization|labialized]].<ref name="MEDSounds" /> (This contrast is similar to that between "slender" and "broad" consonants in [[Goidelic languages]], or between "soft" and "hard" consonants in [[Slavic languages]].) The "light" consonants are considered more relaxed articulations.
<ref name="MEDSounds" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Consonant phonemes of Marshallese
! rowspan="3" |
! colspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" |[[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan="2" |[[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
|-
!<small>Light</small>
!<small>Heavy</small>
!<small>Light</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>Heavy</small>
! colspan="2" |<small>Heavy</small>
|-
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]}}
!{{small|[[Velarization|Velarized]]}}
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalized]]}}
!{{small|[[Velarization|Velarized]]}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|Labialized]]}}
!{{small|(Velar)}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|Labialized]]}}
|-
![[Stop consonant|Stop]]
|{{IPA link|pʲ}}
|{{IPA link|pˠ}}
|{{IPA link|tʲ}}
|{{IPA link|tˠ}}
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|kʷ}}
|-
![[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|mʲ}}
|{{IPA link|mˠ}}
|{{IPA link|nʲ}}
|{{IPA link|nˠ}}
|{{IPA link|nʷ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋʷ}}
|-
![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|rʲ}}
|{{IPA link|rˠ}}
|{{IPA link|rʷ}}
|
|
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|lʲ}}
|{{IPA link|lˠ}}
|{{IPA link|lʷ}}
|
|
|-
![[Glide consonant|Glide]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|({{IPA link|ɰ}})
|{{IPA link|w}}
|}
Although Marshallese has no [[consonant voicing and devoicing|voicing]] contrast in consonants,<ref name="w1" /> stops may be allophonically [[partial voicing|partially voiced]] ({{IPA|[p → b]}}, {{IPA|[t → d]}}, {{IPA|[k → ɡ]}}),<ref name="c14">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=14}}</ref> when they are between vowels and not [[geminated]]. (Technically, partially voiced stops would be {{IPA|[p̬~b̥]}}, {{IPA|[t̬~d̥]}}, {{IPA|[k̬~ɡ̊]}}, but this article uses voiced transcriptions {{IPAblink|b}}, {{IPAblink|d}}, {{IPAblink|ɡ}} for simplicity.)<ref name="alph" /> Final consonants are often [[unreleased stop|unreleased]].<ref name="c14" />

Glides {{IPA|/j ɰ w/}} vanish in many environments, with surrounding vowels assimilating their [[backness]] and [[roundedness]].<ref name="b21-22" /> That is motivated by the limited surface distribution of these phonemes as well as other evidence that backness and roundedness are not specified phonemically for Marshallese vowels.<ref name="b21-22" /> In fact, the consonant {{IPA|/ɰ/}} never surfaces phonetically but is used to explain the preceding phenomenon.<ref name="c14"/> ({{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} may surface phonetically in word-initial and word-final positions and, even then, not consistently.<ref name="c14" />)

Bender (1968) explains that it was once believed there were six bilabial consonants because of observed surface realizations, {{IPA|/p pʲ pʷ m mʲ mʷ/}}, but he determined that two of these, {{IPA|/p m/}}, were actually allophones of {{IPA|/pʲ mʲ/}} respectively before front vowels and allophones of {{IPA|/pˠ mˠ/}} respectively before back vowels.<ref name="b16">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=16}}</ref> Before front vowels, the velarized [[labial consonant]]s {{IPA|/pˠ mˠ/}} actually tend to have rounded (labiovelarized) articulations {{IPA|[pʷ mʷ]}}, but they remain unrounded on the phonemic level, and there are no distinct {{IPA|/pʷ mʷ/}} phonemes.<ref name="b16" /><ref name="bxvi-xvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|pp=xvi-xvii}}</ref> The pronunciation guide used by ''Naan'' (2014) still recognizes {{IPA|[p m]}} as allophone symbols separate from {{IPA|[pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ]}} in these same conditions while recognizing that there are only palatalized and velarized phonemes.<ref name="naan" /> This article uses {{IPA|[pʲ pˠ mʲ mˠ]}} in phonetic transcriptions.

The consonant {{IPA|/tʲ/}} may be phonetically realized as {{IPAblink|tʲ}}, {{IPA|[t͡sʲ]}}, {{IPAblink|sʲ}}, {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}, {{IPAblink|ɕ}}, {{IPAblink|c}}, or {{IPAblink|ç}} (or any of their [[voiced consonant|voiced]] variants {{IPAblink|dʲ}}, {{IPA|[d͡zʲ]}}, {{IPAblink|zʲ}}, {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}, {{IPAblink|ʑ}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, or {{IPAblink|ʝ}}), in [[free variation]].<ref name="MEDSounds" /><ref name="c14" /><ref name="alph" /> Word-internally it usually assumes a [[voiced consonant|voiced]] [[fricative consonant|fricative]] articulation as {{IPAblink|zʲ}} (or {{IPAblink|ʑ}} or {{IPAblink|ʝ}}) but not when [[gemination|geminated]].<ref name="alph" /> {{IPA|/tʲ/}} is used to adapt foreign [[sibilant]]s into Marshallese. In phonetic transcription, this article uses {{IPAblink|tʲ}} and {{IPAblink|zʲ}} as voiceless and voiced allophones of the same phoneme.

Marshallese has no distinct {{IPA|/tʷ/}} phoneme.

The [[dorsal consonant]]s {{IPA|/k ŋ kʷ ŋʷ/}} are usually [[velar consonant|velar]] but with the tongue a little farther back {{IPA|[k̠ ɡ̠ ŋ̠ k̠ʷ ɡ̠ʷ ŋ̠ʷ]}}, making them somewhere between velar and [[uvular consonant|uvular]] in articulation.<ref name="alph" /> All dorsal phonemes are "heavy" (velarized or rounded), and none are "light" (palatalized).<ref name="MEDSounds" /> As stated before, the [[palatal consonant]] articulations {{IPAblink|c}}, {{IPAblink|ɟ}}, {{IPAblink|ç}} and {{IPAblink|ʝ}} are treated as allophones of the palatalized ''[[coronal consonant|coronal]]'' obstruent {{IPA|/tʲ/}}, even though palatal consonants are physically dorsal. For simplicity, this article uses unmarked {{IPA|[k ɡ ŋ kʷ ɡʷ ŋʷ]}} in phonetic transcription.

Bender (1969) describes {{IPA|/nˠ/}} and {{IPA|/nʷ/}} as being 'dark' ''r''-colored, but is not more specific.<ref name="bxvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|p=xvii}}</ref> The Marshallese-English Dictionary (MED) describes these as heavy [[dental nasal]]s.<ref name="MEDSounds" />

Consonants {{IPA|/rʲ/}}, {{IPA|/rˠ/}} and {{IPA|/rʷ/}} are all [[coronal consonant]]s and full [[trill consonant|trill]]s. {{IPA|/rˠ/}} is similar to [[Spanish language|Spanish]] {{lang|es|rr}} with a trill position just behind the [[alveolar ridge]], a [[postalveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r̠ˠ]}},<ref name="bxvii" /> but {{IPA|/rʲ/}} is a palatalized [[dental trill]] {{IPA|[r̪ʲ]}}, articulated further forward behind the [[front teeth]].<ref name="alph" /> The MED and Willson (2003) describe the rhotic consonants as "[[retroflex consonant|retroflex]]", but are not clear how this relates to their dental or alveolar trill positions.<ref name="MEDSounds" /><ref name="w6">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=6}}</ref> (See [[retroflex trill]].) This article uses {{IPAblink|rʲ}}, {{IPAblink|rˠ}} and {{IPAblink|rʷ}} in phonetic transcription.

The heavy lateral consonants {{IPA|/lˠ/}} and {{IPA|/lʷ/}} are [[dark l|dark ''l'']] like in English ''feel'', articulated {{IPAblink|ɫ}} and {{IPAblink|ɫʷ}} respectively.<ref name="alph" /> This article uses {{IPAblink|lˠ}} and {{IPAblink|lʷ}} in phonetic transcription.

The velarized consonants (and, by extension, the rounded consonants) may be velarized or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]]<ref name="MEDSounds" /> like the [[emphatic consonant]]s in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Mizrahi Hebrew]].

===Vowels===
Marshallese has a [[vertical vowel system]] of just four [[vowel]] [[phoneme]]s, each with several [[allophone]]s depending on the surrounding consonants.<ref name="w2">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=2}}</ref>

On the phonemic level, while Bender (1969) and Choi (1992) agree that the vowel phonemes are distinguished by [[vowel height|height]], they describe the abstract nature of these phonemes differently, with Bender treating the [[front vowel|front]] unrounded surface realizations as their relaxed state that becomes altered by proximity of velarized or rounded consonants,<ref name="bxiii-xvii">{{harvp|Bender|1969|pp=xiii-xvii}}</ref> while Choi uses [[central vowel]] symbols in a neutral fashion to notate the abstract phonemes and completely different [[front vowel|front]], [[back vowel|back]] and [[roundedness|rounded]] vowel symbols for surface realizations. Bender (1968, 1969), MED (1976) and Willson (2003) recognize four vowel phonemes, but Choi (1992) observes only three of the phonemes as having a stable quality, but theorizes that there may be a historical process of reduction from four to three, and otherwise ignores the fourth phoneme. For phonemic transcription of vowels, this article recognizes four phonemes and uses the front unrounded vowel {{IPA|/æ ɛ e i/}} notation of the MED, following the approach of Bender (1969) in treating the front vowel surface realizations as the representative phonemes.

On the phonetic level, Bender (1968), MED (1976), Choi (1992), Willson (2003) and ''Naan'' (2014) notate some Marshallese vowel surface realizations differently from one another, and they disagree on how to characterize the [[vowel height]]s of the underlying phonemes, with Willson (2003) taking the most divergent approach in treating the four heights as actually two heights each with the added presence (+ATR) or absence (-ATR) of [[advanced tongue root]]. Bender (1968) assigns central vowel symbols for the surface realizations that neighbor velarized consonants, but the MED (1976), Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) largely assign back unrounded vowel symbols for these, with the exception that the MED uses {{IPAblink|ə}} rather than cardinal {{IPAblink|ɤ}} for the [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]], and Choi (1992) and Willson (2003) use {{IPAblink|a}} rather than cardinal {{IPAblink|ɑ}} for the [[open back unrounded vowel]]. ''Naan'' (2014) is the only reference providing a [[vowel trapezium]] for its own vowels, and differs especially from the other vowel models in splitting the front allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} into two realizations ({{IPAblink|ɪ}} before consonants and {{IPAblink|i}} in open syllables), merging the front allophones of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} as {{IPAblink|ɛ}} before consonants and {{IPAblink|e}} in open syllables, merging the rounded allophones of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} as {{IPAblink|o}}, and indicating the front allophone of {{IPA|/æ/}} as a close-mid central unrounded vowel {{IPAblink|ɘ}}, a realization more raised even than the front allophone of the normally higher {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. For phonetic notation of vowel surface realizations, this article largely uses the MED's notation, but uses only cardinal symbols for back unrounded vowels.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Marshallese vowel phonemes and surface realizations
|-
! colspan="4" | Bender<ref name="b17">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=17}}</ref>
! rowspan="7" | &nbsp;
! colspan="5" | MED<ref name="MEDSounds">{{harvp|Abo|Bender|Capelle|DeBrum|1976|loc=4. The Sounds of Marshallese}}</ref>
! rowspan="7" | &nbsp;
! colspan="5" | Choi<ref name="c15">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=15}}</ref>
! rowspan="7" | &nbsp;
! colspan="4" | Willson<ref name="w3">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=3}}</ref>
! rowspan="7" | &nbsp;
! colspan="4" | ''Naan''<ref name="naan">{{cite web |title=free Marshallese-English dictionary |url=https://sites.google.com/site/lalenaan/ |work=Naan |date=Aug 1, 2014 |author=Nik Willson}}</ref>
|- style="font-size: 75%;"
! rowspan="2" | Height
! colspan="2" | Unrnd.
! Rnd.
! rowspan="2" | Height
! rowspan="2" | Phon.
! colspan="2" | Unrnd.
! Rnd.
! rowspan="2" | Height
! rowspan="2" | Phon.
! colspan="2" | Unrnd.
! Rnd.
! rowspan="2" | Height
! colspan="2" | Unrnd.
! Rnd.
! colspan="2" | Unrnd.
! Rnd.
|- style="font-size: 75%;"
! Frt.
! colspan="2" | Back
! Frt.
! colspan="2" | Back
! Frt.
! colspan="2" | Back
! Frt.
! colspan="2" | Back
! Frt.
! colspan="2" | Back
|-
| [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɨ}} || {{IPAblink|u}}
| [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{lang|mh|&#123;i&#125;}}
| {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}}
| [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|/ɨ/}}
| {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}}
| {{nobr|+hi, +ATR}}
| {{IPAblink|i}} || {{IPAblink|ɯ}} || {{IPAblink|u}}
| {{IPA|[ɪ, i]}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}} || {{IPAblink|u}}
|-
| [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPAblink|ɪ}} || {{IPAblink|ɪ̈}}|| {{IPAblink|ʊ}}
| rowspan="2" | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{lang|mh|&#123;ȩ&#125;}}
| {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ə}} || {{IPAblink|o}}
! colspan="5" | &nbsp;
| {{nobr|+hi, -ATR}}
| {{IPAblink|ɪ}} || {{IPAblink|ɤ}} || {{IPAblink|ʊ}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[ɛ, e]}} || {{IPAblink|ɘ}} || rowspan="2" | {{IPAblink|o}}
|-
| [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ə}} || {{IPAblink|o}}
| {{lang|mh|&#123;e&#125;}}
| {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|/ə/}}
| {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|o}}
| {{nobr|-hi, +ATR}}
| {{IPAblink|e}} || {{IPAblink|ʌ}} || {{IPAblink|o}}
| {{IPAblink|ʌ}}
|-
| [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{lang|mh|&#123;a&#125;}}
| {{IPAblink|æ}} || {{IPAblink|ɑ}} || {{IPAblink|ɒ}}
| [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA|/ɐ/}}
| {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| {{nobr|-hi, -ATR}}
| {{IPAblink|ɛ}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɔ}}
| {{IPAblink|ë}} || {{IPAblink|a}} || {{IPAblink|ɒ}}
|}

Superficially, 12 Marshallese vowel allophones appear in [[minimal pairs]], a common test for phonemicity.<ref name="b17" /> For example, {{IPA|[mʲæ]}} ({{lang|mh|mā}}, 'breadfruit'), {{IPA|[mʲɑ]}} ({{lang|mh|ma}}, 'but'), and {{IPA|[mʲɒ]}} ({{lang|mh|mo̧}}, 'taboo') are separate Marshallese words.<ref name="b17" /> However, the uneven distribution of glide phonemes suggests that they underlyingly end with the glides (thus {{IPA|/mʲæj/}}, {{IPA|/mʲæɰ/}}, {{IPA|/mʲæw/}}).<ref name="b21-22">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=21–22}}</ref> When glides are taken into account, it emerges that there are only 4 vowel phonemes.<ref name="b21-22" />

When a vowel phoneme appears between consonants with different secondary articulations, the vowel often surfaces as a smooth transition from one vowel allophone to the other.<ref name="w3"/> For example, {{lang|mh|jok}} 'shy', phonemically {{IPA|/tʲɛkʷ/}}, is often realized phonetically as {{IPA|[tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ]}}.<ref name="w3" /> It follows that there are 24 possible short [[diphthong]]s in Marshallese:<ref name="w3" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" align="center"
! Phoneme
! {{IPA|◌ʲ_◌ˠ}}
! {{IPA|◌ʲ_◌ʷ}}
! {{IPA|◌ˠ_◌ʲ}}
! {{IPA|◌ˠ_◌ʷ}}
! {{IPA|◌ʷ_◌ʲ}}
! {{IPA|◌ʷ_◌ˠ}}
|-
| {{IPA|/i/}} || {{IPA|[i͡ɯ]}} || {{IPA|[i͡u]}} || {{IPA|[ɯ͡i]}} || {{IPA|[ɯ͡u]}} || {{IPA|[u͡i]}} || {{IPA|[u͡ɯ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/e/}} || {{IPA|[e͡ɤ]}} || {{IPA|[e͡o]}} || {{IPA|[ɤ͡e]}} || {{IPA|[ɤ͡o]}} || {{IPA|[o͡e]}} || {{IPA|[o͡ɤ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || {{IPA|[ɛ͡ʌ]}} || {{IPA|[ɛ͡ɔ]}} || {{IPA|[ʌ͡ɛ]}} || {{IPA|[ʌ͡ɔ]}} || {{IPA|[ɔ͡ɛ]}} || {{IPA|[ɔ͡ʌ]}}
|-
| {{IPA|/æ/}} || {{IPA|[æ͡ɑ]}} || {{IPA|[æ͡ɒ]}} || {{IPA|[ɑ͡æ]}} || {{IPA|[ɑ͡ɒ]}} || {{IPA|[ɒ͡æ]}} || {{IPA|[ɒ͡ɑ]}}
|}

These diphthongs are the typical realizations of short vowels between two non-glide consonants, but in reality the diphthongs themselves are not phonemic, and short vowels between two consonants with different secondary articulations can be articulated as either a smooth diphthong (such as {{IPA|[ɛ͡ʌ]}}) or as a monophthong of one of the two vowel allophones (such as {{IPA|[ɛ ~ ʌ]}}), all in free variation. Bender (1968) also observes that when the would-be diphthong starts with a back rounded vowel {{IPA|[ɒ ɔ o u]}} and ends with a front unrounded vowel {{IPA|[æ ɛ e i]}}, then a vowel allophone associated with the back unrounded vowels (notated in this article as {{IPA|[ɑ ʌ ɤ ɯ]}}) may also occur in the vowel nucleus.<ref name="b22-23">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=22-23}}</ref> Because the cumulative visual complexity of notating so many diphthongs in phonetic transcriptions can make them more difficult to read, it is not uncommon to phonetically transcribe Marshallese vowel allophones only as one predominant monophthongal allophone, so that a word like {{IPA|[tʲɛ͡ɔkʷ]}} can be more simply transcribed as {{IPA|[tʲɔkʷ]}}, in a condensed fashion. Before Bender's (1968) discovery that Marshallese utilized a vertical vowel system, it was conventional to transcribe the language in this manner with a presumed inventory of 12 vowel monophthong phonemes,<ref name="b17-21">{{harvp|Bender|1968|pp=17-21}}</ref> and it remains in occasional use as a more condensed phonetic transcription.<ref name="c22-25">{{harvp|Choi|1992|pp=22-25}}</ref><ref name="w6" /> This article uses phonemic or diphthongal phonetic transcriptions for illustrative purposes, but for most examples it uses condensed phonetic transcription with the most relevant short vowel allophones roughly corresponding to [[#Orthography|Marshallese orthography]] as informed by the MED.

Some syllables appear to contain long vowels: {{lang|mh|naaj}} 'future'.<ref name="w7" /> They are thought to contain an underlying glide ({{IPA|/j/}}, {{IPA|/ɰ/}} or {{IPA|/w/}}), which is not present phonetically.<ref name="w7-8">{{harvp|Willson|2003|pp=7–8}}</ref><ref name="b22">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=22}}</ref> For instance, the underlying form of {{lang|mh|naaj}} is {{IPA|/nʲæɰætʲ/}}.<ref name="w7" /> Although the medial glide is not realized phonetically, it affects vowel quality; in a word like {{IPA|/nʲæɰætʲ/}}, the vowel transitions from {{IPAblink|æ}} to {{IPAblink|ɑ}} and then back to {{IPAblink|æ}}, as {{IPA|[nʲæ͡ɑɑ͡ætʲ]}}.<ref name="clong">{{harvp|Choi|1992|pp=70–73}}</ref> In condensed phonetic transcription, the same word can be expressed as {{IPA|[nʲɑɑtʲ]}} or {{IPA|[nʲɑːtʲ]}}.<ref name="b17-21" /><ref name="c22-25" /><ref name="w6" />

===Phonotactics===
Syllables in Marshallese follow CV, CVC, and VC patterns.<ref name="w7">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=7}}</ref> Marshallese words always underlyingly begin and end with consonants.<ref name="b22" /> Initial, final, and long vowels may be explained as the results of underlying glides not present on the phonetic level.<ref name="b22" /> Initial vowels are sometimes realized with an onglide {{IPAblink|j}} or {{IPAblink|w}} but not consistently:<ref name="c22">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=22}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/jætʲ/ → [<!--æ̯-->ætʲ ~ jætʲ]}} 'weave'<ref name="c23">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=23}}</ref>

Only [[homorganic consonants|homorganic]] consonant sequences are allowed in Marshallese,<ref name="w4-5">{{harvp|Willson|2003|pp=4–5}}</ref> including geminate varieties of each consonant, except for glides.<ref name="c14" /> Non-homorganic clusters are separated by vowel [[epenthesis]] even across word boundaries.<ref name="w4-5" /> Some homorganic clusters are also disallowed:<ref name="w4-5" />
* [[obstruent consonant|Obstruent]]-obstruent, [[nasal consonant|nasal]]-nasal, [[liquid consonant|liquid]]-liquid, nasal-obstruent, and nasal-liquid clusters undergo assimilation of the secondary articulation except if the first consonant is a rounded coronal or a rounded dorsal. Then, the clusters undergo assimilation of the rounded articulation.<ref name="w5">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=5}}</ref>
* †Obstruent-liquid and liquid-obstruent clusters besides {{IPA|/lʲtˠ/}} and {{IPA|/lˠtˠ/}} undergo epenthesis.<ref name="w5" />
* Liquid-nasal clusters undergo nasal assimilation.<ref name="w5" />
* Obstruent-nasal clusters undergo epenthesis (if coronal) or nasal assimilation (if non-coronal).<ref name="w5" />
* Clusters involving any glides undergo epenthesis, including otherwise homorganic clusters of two of the same glide.

The following assimilations are created, with empty combinations representing epenthesis.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Bilabials
|-
| ↓→
! {{IPA|/p/}}
! {{IPA|/m/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/p/}}
| {{IPA|/pː/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/mː/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/m/}}
| {{IPA|/mp/}}
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Coronals
|-
| ↓→
! {{IPA|/t/}}
! {{IPA|/n/}}
! {{IPA|/r/}}
! {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|/tː/}}
! colspan="3" | 
|-
! {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{IPA|/nt/}}
| rowspan="3" | {{IPA|/nː/}}
| {{IPA|/nr/}}
| {{IPA|/nl/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/r/}}
! 
| {{IPA|/rː/}}
| {{IPA|/rl/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/l/}}
| †
| {{IPA|/lr/}}
| {{IPA|/lː/}}
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Dorsals
|-
| ↓→
! {{IPA|/k/}}
! {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|/kː/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ŋː/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋk/}}
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Secondary
|-
| ↓→
! {{IPA|/◌ʲ/}}
! {{IPA|/◌ˠ/}}
! {{IPA|/◌ʷ/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/◌ʲ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ʲ◌ʲ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ˠ◌ˠ/}}
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/◌ʷ◌ʷ/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/◌ˠ/}}
|-
! {{IPA|/◌ʷ/}}
| colspan="3" | {{IPA|/◌ʷ◌ʷ/}}
|}
{{col-end}}

The [[vowel height]] of an epenthetic vowel is not phonemic as the epenthetic vowel itself is not phonemic, but is still phonetically predictable given the two nearest other vowels and whether one or both of the cluster consonants are glides.<ref name="b22" /><ref name="w7" /> Bender (1968) does not specifically explain the vowel heights of epenthetic vowels between two non-glides, but of his various examples containing such vowels, none of the epenthetic vowels has a height lower than the highest of either of their nearest neighboring vowels, and the epenthetic vowel actually becomes {{IPA|/ɛ̯/}} if the two nearest vowels are both {{IPA|/æ/}}. ''Naan'' (2014) does not take the heights of epenthetic vowels between non-glides into consideration, phonetically transcribing all of them as a [[schwa]] {{IPAblink|ə}}.<ref name="naan" /> But when one of the consonants in a cluster is a glide, the height of the epenthetic vowel between them follows a different process, assuming the same height of whichever vowel is on the opposite side of that glide, forming a long vowel with it across the otherwise silent glide.<ref name="b22-23" /> Epenthetic vowels do not affect the rhythm of the spoken language, and can never be a stressed syllable.{{Citation needed|date=January 2024}} Phonetic transcription may indicate epenthetic vowels between two non-glides as non-syllabic,<ref name="b8">{{harvp|Bender|1968|p=8}}</ref> using IPA notation similar to that of [[semi-vowel]]s. Certain Westernized Marshallese placenames spell out the epenthetic vowels:
* [[Ebeye]], from earlier ''Eb'''e'''je'', from {{lang|mh|Epjā}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Erikub|Er'''i'''kub]], from {{lang|mh|Ādkup}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Kwajalein|Kwaj'''a'''lein]], from {{lang|mh|Kuwajleen}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Majuro|Maj'''u'''ro]], from {{lang|mh|Mājro}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Namorik|Nam'''o'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Nam̧dik}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Omelek|Om'''e'''lek]], from {{lang|mh|Kom̧le}} ("{{lang|mh|K<u>om̧le, K</u>om̧le}}")<ref name="MED" />
* [[Rongelap|Rong'''e'''lap]], from {{lang|mh|Ron̄l‌̧ap}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Rongerik|Rong'''e'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Ron̄dik}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Ujelang|Uj'''e'''lang]], from {{lang|mh|Wūjlan̄}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Uliga|Ul'''i'''ga]], from {{lang|mh|Wūlka}}<ref name="MED" />
* [[Utirik|Ut'''i'''rik]], from {{lang|mh|Utrōk}}<ref name="MED" />
Epenthetic vowels in general can be omitted without affecting meaning, such as in song or in enunciated syllable breaks. This article uses non-syllabic notation in phonetic IPA transcription to indicate epenthetic vowels between non-glides.

=== Timing ===
The short vowel phonemes {{IPA|/æ ɛ e i/}} and the approximant phonemes {{IPA|/j ɰ w/}} all occupy a roughly equal duration of time.<ref name="c27">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=27}}</ref> Though they occupy time, the approximants are generally not articulated as glides, and Choi (1992) does not rule out a deeper level of representation.<ref name="c71">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=71}}</ref> In particular, {{IPA|/V/}} short vowels occupy one unit of time, and {{IPA|/VGV/}} long vowels (for which {{IPA|/G/}} is an approximant phoneme) are three times as long.<ref name="c65">{{harvp|Choi|1992|p=65}}</ref>

As a matter of [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]], each {{IPA|/C/}} consonant and {{IPA|/V/}} vowel phonemic sequence carries one [[mora (linguistics)|mora]] in length, with the exception of {{IPA|/C/}} in {{IPA|/CV/}} sequences where the vowel carries one mora for both phonemes. All morae are thus measured in {{IPA|/CV/}} or shut {{IPA|/C/}} sequences:<ref name="w8">{{harvp|Willson|2003|p=8}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/CVC/}} is two morae: {{IPA|/CV-C/}}. It is also the shortest possible length of a Marshallese word.
* {{IPA|/CVCVC/}} is three morae: {{IPA|/CV-CV-C/}}. Since approximants are also consonants, long vowel sequences of {{IPA|/CVGVC/}} are also three morae.
* {{IPA|/CVCCVC/}} is four morae: {{IPA|/CV-C-CV-C/}}.
* Prefixes like {{lang|mh|ri-}} are {{IPA|/CV-/}} sequences occupying only one mora but are attached to words rather than standing as words on their own.
* Suffixes like {{lang|mh|-in}} are {{IPA|/-VC/}} sequences. The syllable itself occupies two morae but adds only one mora to the word because the vowel attaches itself to the last consonant phoneme in the word, changing {{IPA|/-C/}} into {{IPA|/-C‿V-C/}}.

That makes Marshallese a mora-rhythmed language in a fashion similar to [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Gilbertese language|Gilbertese]], [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

===Historic sound changes===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center 
|+ Marshallese reflexes of [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto Oceanic]] [[consonant]]s{{sfnp|Bender et al.|2003|pp=4, 5}}
|-
! [[Proto-Oceanic language|Proto-Oceanic]]
|  *mp ||  *mp,ŋp || *p || *m ||  *m,ŋm ||  *k || *ŋk || *ŋ || *y || *w || *t || || *s,nj || *ns,j || *j || *nt,nd || *d,R || *l || *n || *ɲ
|-
! [[Micronesian languages|Proto-Micronesian]]
|  *p ||  *pʷ || *f || *m ||  *mʷ ||  *k || *x || *ŋ || *y || *w || *t || *T || *s || *S || *Z || *c || *r || *l || *n || *ɲ
|-
! Marshallese
| {{IPA|/pʲ/}} || {{IPA|/pˠ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{IPA|/mʲ/}} || {{IPA|/mˠ/}} || {{IPA|/k, kʷ/}} || {{IPA|∅}} || {{IPA|/ŋ, ŋʷ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}} || {{IPA|/w/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tʲ/}} || {{IPA|/tˠ/}} || {{IPA|/tˠ/}} || {{IPA|∅}} || {{IPA|/rʲ/}} || {{IPA|/rˠ, rʷ/}} || {{IPA|/lʲ, lˠ, lʷ/}} || {{IPA|/nʲ, nˠ, nʷ/}} || {{IPA|/nʲ/}}
|-
|}

Marshallese consonants show splits conditioned by the surrounding Proto-Micronesian vowels. Proto-Micronesian *k *ŋ *r become rounded next to *o or next to *u except in bisyllables whose other vowel is unrounded. Default outcomes of *l and *n are palatalized; they become velarized or rounded before *a or sometimes *o if there is no high vowel in an adjacent syllable. Then, roundedness is determined by the same rule as above.

==Orthography==
[[File:Book of Mormon - Marshallese.jpg|thumb|Marshallese version of the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'']]
[[File:Alphabet marshallais.jpg|thumb|Marshallese alphabet in a library]]
Marshallese is written in the [[Latin alphabet]]. There are two competing orthographies.<ref name="mx">{{harvp|Miller|2010|p=x}}</ref> The "old" orthography was introduced by missionaries.<ref name="mx" /> This system is not highly consistent or faithful in representing the sounds of Marshallese, but until recently, it had no competing orthography.<ref name="r6">{{harvp|Rudiak-Gould|2004|p=6}}</ref> It is currently widely used, including in newspapers and signs.<ref name="r6" /> The "new" orthography is gaining popularity especially in schools and among young adults and children.<ref name="mx" /> The "new" orthography represents the sounds of the Marshallese language more faithfully and is the system used in the Marshallese–English dictionary by Abo et al., currently the only complete published Marshallese dictionary.<ref name="mx" /><ref name="r6" />

Here is the current [[alphabet]], as promoted by the [[Republic of the Marshall Islands]]. It consists of 24 letters.

{| border=0 style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"
| {{lang|mh|A}} || {{lang|mh|Ā}} || {{lang|mh|B}} || {{lang|mh|D}}
| {{lang|mh|E}} || {{lang|mh|I}} || {{lang|mh|J}} || {{lang|mh|K}}
| {{lang|mh|L}} || {{lang|mh|L‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|M}} || {{lang|mh|M̧}}
| {{lang|mh|N}} || {{lang|mh|N‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|N̄}} || {{lang|mh|O}}
| {{lang|mh|O̧}} || {{lang|mh|Ō}} || {{lang|mh|P}} || {{lang|mh|R}}
| {{lang|mh|T}} || {{lang|mh|U}} || {{lang|mh|Ū}} || {{lang|mh|W}}
|-
| {{lang|mh|a}} || {{lang|mh|ā}} || {{lang|mh|b}} || {{lang|mh|d}}
| {{lang|mh|e}} || {{lang|mh|i}} || {{lang|mh|j}} || {{lang|mh|k}}
| {{lang|mh|l}} || {{lang|mh|l‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|m}} || {{lang|mh|m̧}}
| {{lang|mh|n}} || {{lang|mh|n‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|n̄}} || {{lang|mh|o}}
| {{lang|mh|o̧}} || {{lang|mh|ō}} || {{lang|mh|p}} || {{lang|mh|r}}
| {{lang|mh|t}} || {{lang|mh|u}} || {{lang|mh|ū}} || {{lang|mh|w}}
|}

{|
| valign="top" |
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+Orthographic consonants of Marshallese<ref name="alph">{{harvp|Rudiak-Gould|2004|pp=7–8}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" | 
! colspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan="3" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
|-
! <small>Light</small>!! <small>Heavy</small>!! <small>Light</small>!! colspan="2" | <small>Heavy</small>!! colspan="2" | <small>Heavy</small>
|-
!
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalised]]}}
!{{small|[[Velarization|Velarised]]}}
!{{small|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|Palatalised]]}}
!{{small|[[Velarization|Velarised]]}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|Labialised]]}}
!{{small|(Velar)}}
!{{small|[[Labialization|Labialised]]}}
|-
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
| {{lang|mh|p}} || {{lang|mh|b(w)}} || {{lang|mh|j}} || {{lang|mh|t}} || || {{lang|mh|k}} || {{lang|mh|k(w)}}
|-
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{lang|mh|m}} || {{lang|mh|m̧(w)}} || {{lang|mh|n}} || {{lang|mh|n‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|n‌̧(w)}} || {{lang|mh|n̄}} || {{lang|mh|n̄(w)}}
|-
! [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| || || {{lang|mh|d}}|| {{lang|mh|r}}|| {{lang|mh|r(w)}}|| ||
|-
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
|
|
|{{lang|mh|l}}
|{{lang|mh|l‌̧}}
|{{lang|mh|l‌̧(w)}}
|
|
|-
! [[Glide consonant|Glide]]
| || || {{lang|mh|e/i/-}} || || || {{lang|mh|-}} || {{lang|mh|w/-}}
|}
| valign="top" | 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Orthographic vowels of Marshallese<ref name="alph" />
! rowspan="2" | 
! colspan="2" | <small>Unrounded</small>
! <small>Rounded</small>
|-
! <small>Front</small>
! colspan="2"| <small>Back</small>
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{lang|mh|i}} || {{lang|mh|ū}} || {{lang|mh|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{lang|mh|e}} || {{lang|mh|ō}} || {{lang|mh|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{lang|mh|ā}} || {{lang|mh|a}} || {{lang|mh|o̧}}
|}
|}
Marshallese spelling is based on pronunciation rather than a phonemic analysis. Therefore, backness is marked in vowels despite being allophonic (it does not change the meaning), and many instances of the glides {{IPA|/j ɰ w/}} proposed on the phonemic level are unwritten, because they do not surface as consonants phonetically. In particular, the glide {{IPA|/ɰ/}}, which never surfaces as a consonant phonetically, is always unwritten.

The letter {{lang|mh|w}} is generally used only in three situations:
#To mark a rounded consonant (one of {{lang|mh|kw l‌̧w n‌̧w n̄w rw}}) or approximant phoneme ({{lang|mh|w}}) before a vowel that precedes an unrounded consonant phoneme ({{lang|mh|a ā e i ō ū}}). Even then, if the consonant phoneme comes after a back rounded vowel {{lang|mh|o̧ o u}} and before another vowel, it is common to write one of {{lang|mh|l‌̧ n‌̧ r}} instead of {{lang|mh|l‌̧w n‌̧w rw}}, but the rounded dorsal consonants {{lang|mh|kw n̄w}} are still written with {{lang|mh|w}} in these circumstances.
#To mark a velarized bilabial consonant (either {{lang|mh|bw}} or {{lang|mh|m̧w}}) before a vowel that precedes a palatalized consonant phoneme ({{lang|mh|ā e i}}).
#To indicate a {{IPAblink|w}} glide phonetically surfacing either word-initially or between two vowels.
{{lang|mh|w}} is never written out word-finally or before another consonant.

*{{lang|mh|Kuwajleen / Kuajleen}} {{IPA|[kʷuwɑzʲɛ̆lʲɛːnʲ]}} "[[Kwajalein]]".<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen MED: {{lang|mh|Kuwajleen}}]; [http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ConcordK.htm#Kuajleen MED: {{lang|mh|Kuajleen}}]</ref>

The palatal glide phoneme {{IPA|/j/}} may also be written out but only as {{lang|mh|e}} before one of {{lang|mh|a o ō o̧}}, or as {{lang|mh|i}} before one of either {{lang|mh|u ū}}. The approximant is never written before any of {{lang|mh|ā e i}}. A stronger raised palatal glide {{IPAblink|i̯}}, phonemically analyzed as the exotic un-syllabic consonant-vowel-consonant sequence {{IPA|/ji̯j/}} rather than plain {{IPA|/j/}}, may occur word-initially before any vowel and is written {{lang|mh|i}}. For historical reasons, certain words like {{lang|mh|io̧kwe}} may be written as {{lang|mh|yokwe}}<ref name="medYokwe" /> with a {{lang|mh|y}}, which does not otherwise exist in the Marshallese alphabet.

One source of orthographic variation is in the representation of vowels. Pure [[monophthong]]s are written consistently based on vowel quality. However, short [[diphthong]]s may often be written with one of the two vowel sounds that they contain. (Alternate phonetic realizations for the same phonemic sequences are provided purely for illustrative purposes.)
*{{lang|mh|wōtōm / otem}} {{IPA|[wɤdˠɤmʲ ~ o͜ɤdˠɤ͜emʲ ~ odˠemʲ]}} "all; every".<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2W.htm#wōtōm MED: {{lang|mh|wōtōm}}]</ref>
Modern orthography has a bias in certain spelling choices in which both possibilities are equally clear between two non-approximant consonants.
* {{lang|mh|a}} is preferred over {{lang|mh|ā}}.
*: {{lang|mh|l‌̧ap}} {{IPA|[lˠɑpʲ ~ lˠɑ͜æpʲ ~ lˠæpʲ]}} "big", not {{lang|mh|*l‌̧āp}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2L.htm#ḷap MED: {{lang|mh|l‌̧ap}}]</ref>
* {{lang|mh|i}} is preferred over {{lang|mh|ū}}.
*: {{lang|mh|dik}} {{IPA|[rʲik ~ rʲi͜ɯk ~ rʲɯk]}} "small", not {{lang|mh|*dūk}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2D.htm#dik MED: {{lang|mh|dik}}]</ref>
* Historically, both {{lang|mh|ō}} and {{lang|mh|e}} have been common and sometimes interchangeable. It is still true today with some words. In the new orthography, {{lang|mh|ō}} is generally preferred over {{lang|mh|e}} in most such situations.
*: {{lang|mh|aelōn̄}} {{IPA|[ɑelʲɤŋ ~ ɑelʲe͜ɤŋ ~ ɑelʲeŋ]}} "atoll; island; land", not {{lang|mh|*aelen̄}}<ref name="MEDaelon" />
*: {{lang|mh|Epatōn}} {{IPA|[ɛbʲɑdˠʌnʲ ~ ɛbʲæ͜ɑdˠʌ͜ɛnʲ]}} "[[Ebadon Island|Ebadon]]", not {{lang|mh|*Epaten}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen MED: {{lang|mh|Epatōn}}]</ref>
*: {{lang|mh|Kūrijm̧ōj}} {{IPA|[kɯrˠizʲĭmˠɤtʲ ~ kɯrˠɯ͜izʲĭ͜ɯ̆mˠɤ͜etʲ]}} "Christmas", not {{lang|mh|*Kūrijm̧ej}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2K.htm#Kūrijṃōj MED: {{lang|mh|Kūrijm̧ōj}}]</ref>
*: {{lang|mh|Nōl‌̧}} {{IPA|[nʲʌlˠ ~ nʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ nʲɛlˠ]}} "[[Nell Island|Nell]]", not {{lang|mh|*Nel‌̧}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocK.htm#Kuwajleen MED: {{lang|mh|Nōl‌̧}}]</ref>
* However, after one of {{lang|mh|d j m p}} and before one of unrounded {{lang|mh|b k l‌̧ m̧ n‌̧ n̄ r t}}, the spelling {{lang|mh|e}} is preferred over {{lang|mh|ō}}.
*: {{lang|mh|pinjel‌̧}} {{IPA|[pʲinzʲɛlˠ ~ pʲinzʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ pʲinzʲʌlˠ]}} "pencil", not {{lang|mh|*pinjōl‌̧}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2P.htm#pinjeḷ MED: {{lang|mh|pinjel‌̧}}]</ref>
* For the name of the Marshall Islands, the new orthography prefers {{lang|mh|e}}, but the spelling with {{lang|mh|ō}} is still found.
*: {{lang|mh|M̧ajel‌̧}} or {{lang|mh|M̧ajōl‌̧}} {{IPA|[mˠɑːzʲɛlˠ ~ mˠɑːzʲɛ͜ʌlˠ ~ mˠɑːzʲʌlˠ]}}, "Marshall Islands"<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2M.htm#Ṃajeḷ MED: {{lang|mh|M̧ajel‌̧}}]</ref><ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ConcordM.htm#Ṃajōḷ MED: {{lang|mh|M̧ajōl‌̧}}]</ref>

In a syllable whose first consonant is rounded and whose second consonant is palatalized, it is common to see the vowel between them written as one of {{lang|mh|a ō ū}}, usually associated with a neighboring velarized consonant:
* {{lang|mh|O̧kwōj}} {{IPA|[ɒɡʷʌtʲ ~ ɒɡʷɔ͜ɛtʲ]}} "August".<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2O.htm#Ọkwōj MED: {{lang|mh|O̧kwōj}}]</ref>
* {{lang|mh|Wūjlan̄}} {{IPA|[wɯzʲĭlʲɑŋ ~ u͜izʲĭlʲæ͜ɑŋ ~ uzʲĭlʲɑŋ]}} "[[Ujelang]]".<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocW.htm#Wūjlañ MED: {{lang|mh|Wūjlan̄}}]</ref>
The exception is long vowels and long diphthongs made up of two mora units, which are written with the vowel quality closer to the phonetic nucleus of the long syllable:
* {{lang|mh|jouj}} {{IPA|[tʲoutʲ]}} "kindness".<ref name="trussel2.com">[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2T.htm#tāākji MED: {{lang|mh|tāākji}}]</ref>
* {{lang|mh|naaj}} {{IPA|[nʲɑːtʲ]}} "will be".<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2N.htm#naaj MED: {{lang|mh|naaj}}]</ref>
* {{lang|mh|tāākji}} {{IPA|[tˠæːɡĭzʲi]}} "taxicab".<ref name="trussel2.com"/>
If the syllable is phonetically open, the vowel written is usually the second vowel in the diphthong: the word {{lang|mh|bwe}} {{IPA|[pˠɛ]}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2B.htm MED: {{lang|mh|bwe}}]</ref> is usually not written any other way, but exceptions exist such as {{lang|mh|aelōn̄}} ({{IPA|/ɰajɘlʲɘŋ/ [ɑelʲɤŋ]}} "land; country; island; atoll"<ref name="MEDaelon">[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2A.htm#aelōñ MED: {{lang|mh|aelōn̄}}]</ref>), which is preferred over {{lang|mh|*āelōn̄}} because the {{lang|mh|a}} spelling emphasizes that the first (unwritten) glide phoneme is dorsal rather than palatal.

The spelling of grammatical [[affix]]es, such as {{lang|mh|ri-}} ({{IPA|/rˠi-/}}<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#ri- MED: {{lang|mh|ri-}}]</ref>) and {{lang|mh|-in}} ({{IPA|/-inʲ/}}) is less variable despite the fact that their vowels become diphthongs with second member dependent on the preceding/following consonant: the prefix {{lang|mh|ri-}} may be pronounced as any of {{IPA|[rˠɯ͜i, rˠɯ, rˠɯ͜u]}} depending on the stem. The term {{lang|mh|Ri-M̧ajel‌̧}} ("[[Marshallese people]]") is actually pronounced {{IPA|[rˠɯmˠɑːzʲɛlˠ]}} as if it were {{lang|mh|Rūm̧ajel‌̧}}.<ref>[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2R.htm#Ri-Ṃajeḷ MED: {{lang|mh|Ri-M̧ajel‌̧}}]</ref>

===Display issues===
In the most [[copy editing|polished]] printed text, the letters {{lang|mh|L‌̧ l‌̧ M̧ m̧ N‌̧ n‌̧ O̧ o̧}} always appear with unaltered [[cedilla]]s directly beneath, and the letters {{lang|mh|Ā ā N̄ n̄ Ō ō Ū ū}} always appear with unaltered [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]s directly above. Regardless, the diacritics are often replaced by ad hoc spellings using more common or more easily displayable characters. In particular, the ''[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ Marshallese-English Online Dictionary]'' (but not the print version), or MOD, uses the following characters:<ref name="MED" />

{| border=0 style="border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center"
! colspan="5" | Standard
! rowspan="3" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
! colspan="5" | MOD
|-
| {{lang|mh|L‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|M̧}} || {{lang|mh|N‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|N̄}} || {{lang|mh|O̧}}
| {{lang|mh|Ḷ}} || {{lang|mh|Ṃ}} || {{lang|mh|Ṇ}} || {{lang|mh|Ñ}} || {{lang|mh|Ọ}}
|-
| {{lang|mh|l‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|m̧}} || {{lang|mh|n‌̧}} || {{lang|mh|n̄}} || {{lang|mh|o̧}}
| {{lang|mh|ḷ}} || {{lang|mh|ṃ}} || {{lang|mh|ṇ}} || {{lang|mh|ñ}} || {{lang|mh|ọ}}
|}

As of 2019, there are no dedicated [[precomposed character]]s in [[Unicode]] for the letters {{lang|mh|M̧ m̧ N̄ n̄ O̧ o̧}}; they must be displayed as plain Latin letters with [[combining character|combining]] [[diacritic]]s, and even many Unicode [[font]]s will not display the combinations properly and neatly. Although {{lang|mh|L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧}} exist as precomposed characters in Unicode, these letters ''also'' do not display properly as Marshallese letters in most Unicode fonts. Unicode defines the letters as having a [[cedilla]], but fonts usually display them with a [[comma below]] because of rendering expectations of the [[Latvian alphabet]]. For many fonts, a workaround is to encode these letters as the base letter {{lang|mh|L l N n}} followed by a [[zero-width non-joiner]] and then a combining cedilla, producing {{lang|mh|L‌̧ l‌̧ N‌̧ n‌̧}}.

Both systems already require fonts that display [[ISO basic Latin alphabet|Basic Latin]] (with {{lang|mh|A a B b D d E e I i J j K k L l M m N n O o P p R r T t U u W w}}) and [[Latin Extended-A]] (with {{lang|mh|Ā ā Ō ō Ū ū}}). The standard orthography also requires [[Combining Diacritical Marks]] for the combining diacritics. The MOD's alternative letters have the advantage of being neatly displayable as all-precomposed characters in any Unicode fonts that support Basic Latin, Latin Extended-A along with [[Latin-1 Supplement]] (with {{lang|mh|Ñ ñ}}) and [[Latin Extended Additional]] (with {{lang|mh|Ḷ ḷ Ṃ ṃ Ṇ ṇ Ọ ọ}}). If a font comfortably displays both the [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration]] and the [[Vietnamese alphabet]], it can also display MOD Marshallese.

This chart highlights the display issues in common web fonts and common free Unicode fonts that are known to support standard or MOD Marshallese lettering. Distinct typefaces appear only if the operating environment supports them. Some fonts have combining diacritic alignment issues, and the vast majority of the fonts have the Latvian diacritic issue; of the fonts shown below, only the [[Noto]] series displays Marshallese correctly.
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw"
|+ class="nowrap" | Marshallese letters in various typefaces
|- style="border-collapse: collapse;"
! Typeface
! colspan="16" | Standard letters
! colspan="4" | With<br/>[[ISO 639-1|"mh"]]<br/>code
! colspan="4" | With<br/>[[zero-width non-joiner|zero-width<br/>non-joiner]]
! colspan="10" | MOD alternates
|- style="font-family: 'Arial';"
| [[Arial]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Arial Unicode MS';"
| [[Arial Unicode MS]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Calibri';"
| [[Calibri]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Cambria';"
| [[Cambria (typeface)|Cambria]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Candara';"
| [[Candara]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Charis SIL';"
| [[Charis SIL]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Code2000';"
| [[Code2000]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Consolas';"
| [[Consolas]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Constantia';"
| [[Constantia (typeface)|Constantia]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Corbel';"
| [[Corbel (typeface)|Corbel]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Cormorant';"
| [[Garamond#Cormorant|Cormorant]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Courier New';"
| [[Courier New]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'DejaVu Sans';"
| [[DejaVu fonts|DejaVu]] Sans|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'DejaVu Sans Mono';"
| [[DejaVu fonts|DejaVu]] Sans Mono|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'DejaVu Serif';"
| [[DejaVu fonts|DejaVu]] Serif|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Gentium';"
| [[Gentium]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Gentium Basic';"
| [[Gentium]] Basic|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Gentium Book Basic';"
| [[Gentium]] Book Basic|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Gentium Plus';"
| [[Gentium]] Plus|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Inconsolata';"
| [[Inconsolata]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Junicode';"
| [[Junicode]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Linux Libertine';"
| [[Linux Libertine]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Lucida Sans Unicode';"
| [[Lucida Sans Unicode]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Noto Sans';"
| [[Noto fonts|Noto]] Sans|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Noto Sans Mono';"
| [[Noto fonts|Noto]] Sans Mono|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Noto Serif';"
| [[Noto fonts|Noto]] Serif|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Open Sans';"
| [[Open Sans]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Segoe UI';"
| [[Segoe UI]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Source Code Pro';"
| [[Source Code Pro]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Source Sans Pro';"
| [[Source Sans Pro]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Source Serif Pro';"
| [[Source Serif Pro]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Tahoma';"
| [[Tahoma (typeface)|Tahoma]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|- style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"
| [[Times New Roman]]|| Ā || ā || Ļ || ļ || M̧ || m̧ || Ņ || ņ || N̄ || n̄ || O̧ || o̧ || Ō || ō || Ū || ū|| lang="mh" | Ļ || lang="mh" | ļ || lang="mh" | Ņ || lang="mh" | ņ|| L‌̧ || l‌̧ || N‌̧ || n‌̧|| Ḷ || ḷ || Ṃ || ṃ || Ṇ || ṇ || Ñ || ñ || Ọ || ọ
|}

===Differences in orthography===
The old orthography was still very similar to the new orthography but made fewer phonological distinctions in spelling than the new orthography does. The new orthography attempts phonological consistency while adhering to most of the spelling patterns of the old orthography, especially in regard to vowels and {{lang|mh|w}}. It has made the new orthography relatively easy for old orthography users to learn. The phonology of Marshallese was documented by Bender (1969) with written examples using the old orthography. Here are some differences between the new and old orthographies:
* The new orthography uses the [[cedilla]]ed letters {{lang|mh|l‌̧ m̧ n‌̧ o̧}}. The old orthography did not use cedillas and ambiguously wrote them {{lang|mh|l m n o}}.
* The new orthography uses {{lang|mh|p}} for "light" {{IPA|/pʲ/}} and {{lang|mh|b}} for "heavy" {{IPA|/pˠ/}}. The old orthography used {{lang|mh|b}} for both.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|binjel}} vs. new {{lang|mh|pinjel‌̧}} {{IPA|[pʲinzʲɛlˠ]}}, 'pencil'.
* The new orthography consistently uses {{lang|mh|d}} for "light" {{IPA|/rʲ/}} in all positions. The old orthography often wrote {{lang|mh|dr}} before vowels, and {{lang|mh|r}} after vowels.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|Amerka}} vs. new {{lang|mh|Amedka}} {{IPA|[ɑmʲɛrʲɛ̆ɡɑ]}}, '[[United States]]'.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|indreo}} or {{lang|mh|indrio}} vs. new {{lang|mh|indeeo}} {{IPA|[inrʲeːɔ]}}, 'forever'.
* Except in certain affixes like {{lang|mh|-an}} whose spelling may be fixed, the new orthography spells the vowel monophthong allophone {{IPAblink|æ}} as {{lang|mh|ā}} in all positions. The old orthography had {{lang|mh|ā}}, but it was relatively less common, and {{IPAblink|æ}} was sometimes written {{lang|mh|e}} instead.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|Ebeje}} vs. new {{lang|mh|Epjā}} {{IPA|[ɛbʲɛ̆zʲæ]}}, '[[Ebeye Island|Ebeye]]'.
* Except in certain affixes like {{lang|mh|ri-}} whose the spelling of the vowels may be fixed, the new orthography spells the vowel monophthong allophone {{IPAblink|ɯ}} as {{lang|mh|ū}} in all positions. The old orthography spelled {{IPAblink|ɯ}} as {{lang|mh|i}} between consonants.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|Kirijmōj}} vs. new {{lang|mh|Kūrijm̧ōj}} {{IPA|[kɯrˠizʲĭmˠɤtʲ]}}, 'Christmas'.
* The new orthography uses only {{lang|mh|e o ō}} for allophones of the vowel phoneme {{IPA|/e/}}. In the old orthography, some words used {{lang|mh|e o ō}}, but other words used {{lang|mh|i u (ū)}} instead.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|ailin̄}} vs. new {{lang|mh|aelōn̄}} {{IPA|[ɑelʲɤŋ ~ ɑelʲeŋ]}}, 'land'.
* The new orthography uses the letter {{lang|mh|o̧}} for the vowel monophthong allophone {{IPAblink|ɒ}} along with many of its related diphthong allophones. The old orthography spelt {{IPAblink|ɒ}} as {{lang|mh|a}} between consonants but {{lang|mh|o}} at the ends of words.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|iakwe}} vs. new {{lang|mh|io̧kwe}} {{IPA|[i̯ɒɡʷɛ]}}, 'hello; good bye; love'.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|mo}} vs. new {{lang|mh|mo̧}} {{IPA|[mʲɒ]}}, 'taboo'.
* The new orthography tries to consistently write long vowels and geminated consonants with double letters. The old orthography habitually wrote these as single letters.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|ekatak}} vs. new {{lang|mh|ekkatak}} {{IPA|[ɛkːɑdˠɑk]}}, 'study'.
*: Compare old {{lang|mh|jab}} vs. new {{lang|mh|jaab}} {{IPA|[tʲɑːpˠ]}}, 'no'.
* The word {{lang|mh|io̧kwe}} {{IPA|[i̯ɒɡʷɛ]}} ('hello; goodbye; love') and the phrase {{lang|mh|io̧kwe eok}} {{IPA|[i̯ɒɡʷɛe̯okʷ]}} ('hello [to you]') are a special case. The new orthography's rules use {{lang|mh|io̧kwe eok}}, while the old orthography's rules used {{lang|mh|iakwe iuk}}. However, {{lang|mh|yokwe yuk}} has been historically more entrenched in both orthographies, but the letter {{lang|mh|y}} does not exist in the normal spelling rules of either orthography. That spelling has multilingual significance as well; {{lang|mh|yokwe (yuk)}} {{IPA|/ˈjɒkweɪ (ˈjʊk)/}} is also the established spelling for the greeting when used in Marshallese-influenced [[English language|English]] and by [[English language|anglophone]]s in the Marshall Islands.

==Bender's orthography==
In his 1968 publication ''Marshallese Phonology'', linguist [[Byron W. Bender]] designed a purely morphophonemic orthography, containing only non-IPA symbols corresponding to consonant phonemes, vowel phonemes and regular reflexes between the dialects, intended for use in dictionaries and language teaching. Besides also appearing in his 1969 tutorial ''Spoken Marshallese'',{{sfnp|Bender|1969|p={{page needed|date=August 2021}}}} it appeared in a modified form alongside the "new" orthography in the 1976 ''Marshallese-English Dictionary'' (MED) to which he contributed. Bender later collaborated with Stephen Trussel when the MED was adapted to website format as the ''Marshallese-English Online Dictionary'' (MOD), with Bender's orthography appearing in an again-modified form.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! Phoneme
| {{IPA|/pʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/pˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/tʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/tˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|/kʷ/}}
| {{IPA|/mʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/mˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/nʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/nˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/nʷ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
| {{IPA|/ŋʷ/}}
| {{IPA|/rʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/rˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/rʷ/}}
| {{IPA|/lʲ/}}
| {{IPA|/lˠ/}}
| {{IPA|/lʷ/}}
| {{IPA|/j/}}
| {{IPA|/ɰ/}}
| {{IPA|/w/}}
| {{IPA|/æ/}}
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
| {{IPA|/e/}}
| {{IPA|/i/}}
|-
! Bender (1968)
| {{lang|mh|p}}
| {{lang|mh|b}}
| {{lang|mh|j}}
| {{lang|mh|t}}
| {{lang|mh|k}}
| {{lang|mh|q}}
| {{lang|mh|m}}
| {{lang|mh|ṁ}}
| {{lang|mh|n}}
| {{lang|mh|ṅ}}
| {{lang|mh|n̈}}
| {{lang|mh|g}}
| {{lang|mh|g̈}}
| {{lang|mh|d}}
| {{lang|mh|r}}
| {{lang|mh|r̈}}
| {{lang|mh|l}}
| {{lang|mh|ł}}
| {{lang|mh|l̈}}
| {{lang|mh|y}}
| {{lang|mh|h}}
| {{lang|mh|w}}
| {{lang|mh|a}}
| {{lang|mh|e}}
| {{lang|mh|&amp;}}
| {{lang|mh|i}}
|-
! MED (1976)
| {{lang|mh|p}}
| {{lang|mh|b}}
| {{lang|mh|j}}
| {{lang|mh|t}}
| {{lang|mh|k}}
| {{lang|mh|q}}
| {{lang|mh|m}}
| {{lang|mh|m̧}}
| {{lang|mh|n}}
| {{lang|mh|n‌̧}}
| {{lang|mh|n‌̧°}}
| {{lang|mh|g}}
| {{lang|mh|g°}}
| {{lang|mh|d}}
| {{lang|mh|r}}
| {{lang|mh|r°}}
| {{lang|mh|l}}
| {{lang|mh|l‌̧}}
| {{lang|mh|l‌̧°}}
| {{lang|mh|y}}
| {{lang|mh|h}}
| {{lang|mh|w}}
| {{lang|mh|a}}
| {{lang|mh|e}}
| {{lang|mh|ȩ}}
| {{lang|mh|i}}
|-
! MOD
| {{lang|mh|p}}
| {{lang|mh|b}}
| {{lang|mh|j}}
| {{lang|mh|t}}
| {{lang|mh|k}}
| {{lang|mh|kʷ}}
| {{lang|mh|m}}
| {{lang|mh|ṃ}}
| {{lang|mh|n}}
| {{lang|mh|ṇ}}
| {{lang|mh|ṇʷ}}
| {{lang|mh|g}}
| {{lang|mh|gʷ}}
| {{lang|mh|d}}
| {{lang|mh|r}}
| {{lang|mh|rʷ}}
| {{lang|mh|l}}
| {{lang|mh|ḷ}}
| {{lang|mh|ḷʷ}}
| {{lang|mh|y}}
| {{lang|mh|h}}
| {{lang|mh|w}}
| {{lang|mh|a}}
| {{lang|mh|e}}
| {{lang|mh|ẹ}}
| {{lang|mh|i}}
|}
The MOD's version of Bender's orthography uses [[dot (diacritic)|under-dot]] diacritics instead of the [[cedilla]]s used both by the "new" orthography and by the 1976 MED's version of Bender's orthography, for reasons specific to the MOD's [[#Display issues|display issues]].

In addition to plain sequences of phonemes, Bender's orthography recognizes a few special sequences, many of which relate to regular differences between the [[Ralik Chain|Rālik]] and [[Ratak Chain|Ratak]] dialects of Marshallese.
* {{lang|mh|&#123;yi'y&#125;}} is for a "passing over lightly" version of the vowel allophone {{lang|mh|i}} that occurs at the beginning of certain words, phonetically pronounced {{IPAblink|i̯}} and existing on the phonemic level as {{IPA|/ji̯j/}}. For example, {{lang|mh|&#123;yi'yakʷey&#125;}} is equivalent to {{lang|mh|io̧kwe}} {{IPA|[i̯ɒɡʷɛ] /ji̯jækʷɛj/}} "hello; goodbye; love".
* {{lang|mh|&#123;'yiy&#125;}} is for a "dwelling upon" version of {{lang|mh|i}} that occurs at the beginning of certain words, now generally written {{lang|mh|ii}} in the "new" orthography, phonetically pronounced {{IPAblink|iː}} and existing on the phonemic level as {{IPA|/jijj/}}, effectively making it identical to {{lang|mh|&#123;yiyy&#125;}}. An example is {{lang|mh|&#123;'yiyayiyȩw&#125;}}, which is equivalent to {{lang|mh|iiāio}} {{IPA|[iːæio] /jijjæjijew/}} "reunion".
* {{lang|mh|&#123;yiy&#125;}} at the beginning of a word, without apostrophes, indicates a version of {{lang|mh|i}} whose reflex differs between the two dialects. In the Rālik dialect, this assumes the "dwelling upon" pronunciation, equivalent to {{lang|mh|&#123;'yiy&#125;}}. In the Ratak dialect, it instead assumes the "passing over lightly" pronunciation, equivalent to {{lang|mh|&#123;yi'y&#125;}}. An example is {{lang|mh|&#123;yiyal‌̧&#125;}}, equivalent to {{lang|mh|ial‌̧}} "road":
** In the Rālik dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;yiyal‌̧&#125;}} becomes {{IPA|[iːɑlˠ] /jijjælˠ/}} and is often instead written as {{lang|mh|iial‌̧}} in the "new" orthography.
** In the Ratak dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;yiyal‌̧&#125;}} becomes {{IPA|[i̯ɑlˠ] /ji̯jælˠ/}}.
* {{lang|mh|&#123;hhV&#125;}} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) indicates a back unrounded vowel that whose reflex differs between the dialects. In the Rālik dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;hhV&#125;}} becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;hVhV&#125;}}, lengthening the vowel. In the Ratak dialect, the second {{lang|mh|&#123;h&#125;}} disappears, becoming {{lang|mh|&#123;hV&#125;}}, and the vowel remains short. An example is {{lang|mh|&#123;hhayȩt&#125;}}, equivalent to {{lang|mh|aet}} "yes":
** In the Rālik dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;hhayȩt&#125;}} becomes {{IPA|[ɑːetˠ] /ɰæɰæjetˠ/}} and is often instead written as {{lang|mh|aaet}} in the "new" orthography.
** In the Ratak dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;hhayȩt&#125;}} becomes {{IPA|[ɑetˠ] /ɰæjetˠ/}}.
* {{lang|mh|&#123;yiwV&#125;}} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) is usually equivalent to {{lang|mh|&#123;yiwwV&#125;}}.
* {{lang|mh|&#123;wiwV&#125;}} at the beginning of a word (where "V" can be any vowel) usually becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;yiwwV&#125;}} in the Rālik dialect, but usually becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;wiwwV&#125;}} in the Ratak dialect.
* When a Bender orthography spelling begins with a doubled consonant other than {{lang|mh|&#123;hh&#125;}}, such as {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧m̧an&#125;}} "good", its reflex differs between the dialects.
** In the Rālik dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧m̧an&#125;}} becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;yem̧m̧an&#125;}}, sprouting both a [[prothesis (linguistics)|prothetic]] {{lang|mh|&#123;y&#125;}} and a vowel. The dialect generally spells this {{lang|mh|em̧m̧an}} {{IPA|[ɛmˠːɑnʲ] /jemˠmˠænʲ/}} "good" in the "new" orthography, making it homophonous with the phrase {{lang|mh|em̧m̧an}} which means "it is good" in both dialects.
** In the Ratak dialect, {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧m̧an&#125;}} becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧em̧an&#125;}} with only a prothetic vowel, appearing instead between the two consonants. The dialect generally spells this {{lang|mh|m̧ōm̧an}} {{IPA|[mˠʌmˠɑnʲ] /mˠɛmˠænʲ/}} "good" in the "new" orthography.
** In both dialects, the prothetic vowel is equivalent to the first stem vowel unless it is {{lang|mh|&#123;a&#125;}}, in which case the stem vowel is always paired with the prothetic vowel {{lang|mh|&#123;e&#125;}}. But when spellings like {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧m̧an&#125;}} take [[prefix]]es with a vowel, there are no prothetic vowels: {{lang|mh|&#123;ri-&#125;}} "person" + {{lang|mh|&#123;m̧m̧an&#125;}} "good" becomes {{lang|mh|&#123;rim̧m̧an&#125;}} {{IPA|/rˠi-mˠmˠænʲ/ [rˠɯmˠːɑnʲ]}}, which the "new" orthography spells {{lang|mh|rūm̧m̧an}} "good person".

==Grammar==

===Morphology===
Nouns are not overtly marked as such, and do not inflect for number, gender, or case.<ref name="ws15">{{harvp|Willson|2008|p=15}}</ref> Nouns are often verbalized and verbs nominalized without any overt morphological marker:<ref name="ws15" />

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|Je-n al al in pālle.
|1PL.IN.AGR-should sing.TR song of be.covered({{=}}American)
|'We should sing American songs.' (Willson 2008)}}

Marshallese has determiners and demonstratives which follow the noun they modify.<ref name="ws16">{{harvp|Willson|2008|p=16}}</ref> These are marked for number, and in the plural also encode a human/nonhuman distinction.<ref name="ws17">{{harvp|Willson|2008|p=17}}</ref> For example, in the singular {{lang|mh|pinjel‌̧ eo}} 'the pencil' and {{lang|mh|l‌̧addik eo}} 'the boy' take the same determiner, but in the plural {{lang|mh|pinjel‌̧ ko}} 'the pencils' and {{lang|mh|l‌̧addik ro}} have different determiners.<ref name="ws17" /> Indefinites are an exception; in the singular they are expressed with the word {{lang|mh|juon}} 'one' before the noun (e.g. {{lang|mh|juon al}} 'a song'), and there is no plural indefinite determiner.<ref name="ws17-18">{{harvp|Willson|2008|pp=17–18}}</ref>

The Marshallese demonstrative system has five levels:
# near the speaker (sg. {{lang|mh|e}} / pl. human {{lang|mh|rā}} / pl. nonhuman {{lang|mh|kā}})
# near the speaker and listener ({{lang|mh|in / rein / kein}})
# near the listener ({{lang|mh|n‌̧e / ran‌̧e / kan‌̧e}})
# away from both speaker and listener ({{lang|mh|en‌̧ / ran‌̧ / kan‌̧}})
# distant but visible ({{lang|mh|uweo / roro / koko}}).<ref name="ws17" />

<div style="float:right; margin-left:20px">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Marshallese pronouns<ref name="ws18">{{harvp|Willson|2008|p=18}}</ref>
! colspan="3" | Person
! absolutive /<br />emphatic !! objective
|-
! rowspan="3" | s
! colspan="2" | 1
| {{lang|mh|n̄a}} || {{lang|mh|eō}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2
| {{lang|mh|kwe}} || {{lang|mh|eok}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 3
| colspan="2" | {{lang|mh|e}}
|-
! rowspan="4" | pl
! 1
! [[clusivity|inc]]
| colspan="2" | {{lang|mh|kōj}}
|-
! 1
! [[clusivity|exc]]
| colspan="2" | {{lang|mh|kōm}}
|-
! colspan="2" | 2
| colspan="2" | {{lang|mh|kom̧}} (Ralik)<br />{{lang|mh|kom̧i}} (Ratak)
|-
! colspan="2" | 3
| colspan="2" | {{lang|mh|er}}
|}
</div>
Marshallese possesses two sets of 1st and 2nd person singular pronouns, known as "absolutive" or "emphatic" pronouns and as "objective" pronouns.<ref name="ws18" /> Marshallese 1st person plurals mark for [[clusivity]].<ref name="ws18" /> Third person objective pronouns may only be used for humans; nonhumans instead take a null pronoun:<ref name="ws18" />

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|E-ar den̄ōt er.
|3S.AGR-PAST slap.TR 3PL.{{gcl|OBJ|object pronoun}}
|'He slapped them (human).' (Willson 2008)}}

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|E-ar den̄ōt-i.
|3S.AGR-PAST slap.TR-{{gcl|OBJ|object marker}}
|'He slapped them (nonhuman).' (Willson 2008)}}

The emphatic pronouns serve as subjects of equational sentences, as complements of prepositions, in order to emphasize objects, in coordination structures, and with topicalized or focused subjects.<ref name="ws19-21">{{harvp|Willson|2008|pp=19–21}}</ref> It is common in Oceanic languages for a special type of pronoun to be used in equational sentences and for topicalization or focus.<ref name="ws19-21" />

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|N̄a rikaki.
|1S.EMPH teacher
|'I am a teacher.' (Willson 2008)}}

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|N̄a i-j yokwe ajiri ro nej-ū.
|1S.EMPH 1S.AGR.PRES love child the.PL.HUM {{gcl|CHER.POSS|possessive classifier for cherished items}}-1S.GEN
|'Me, I love my children.' (Willson 2008)}}

Marshallese has four verb tenses: present, past, near future, and future. The tenses are formed by adding a tense suffix to the personal pronoun in the sentence. If the subject is not a personal pronoun, a third-person pronoun is added with the appropriate tense suffix. The present tense is formed by attaching the suffix -j to the personal pronoun (-ij for kōm and kom̧). The suffix for the past tense is either -ar or -kar depending on the dialect. -naaj is the suffix used for the regular future tense and -itōn is used for the near future.{{sfnp|Rudiak-Gould|2004|p=35}}

===Syntax===
Marshallese, like many Micronesian languages, divides sentences into two types: predicational sentences and equational sentences.<ref name="wms">{{harvp|Willson|2002|loc=3.2 Morphosyntax}}</ref> Predicational sentences have [[subject-verb-object|SVO]] word order and a main verb:<ref name="wms" />

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|E-j kajan̄jan̄ kita.
|3S-PRES play guitar.
|'He plays guitar.' (Willson 2002)}}

In equational sentences, both the subject and predicate are noun phrases:<ref name="wms" />

{{interlinear|lang=mh|indent=2
|Nuknuk eo e-aibujuij.
|dress DET 3S-beautiful.
|'The dress is beautiful.' (Willson 2002)}}

==Vocabulary==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Marshallese vocabulary<ref name="MED">{{harvp|Abo|Bender|Capelle|DeBrum|1976}}</ref>
| ''(Rālik)'' '''{{lang|mh|aaet}}'''; ''(Ratak)'' '''{{lang|mh|aet}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|hhay&t}}
|[[Yes and no|Yes]]
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|aelōn̄}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|hay&l&ng}}
| [[Atoll]], or island; the word for land in general
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|ej et am̧ mour}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|yej y&t hamh m&wir}}
| How are you? (Literally, "How is your life doing?") Notice that the {{lang|mh|m̧}} [[#Phonotactics|assimilates]] before the {{lang|mh|m}}.
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|em̧m̧an}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|yemhmhan}}
| (It) is good.
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|enana}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|yenahnah}}
| (It) is bad.
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|io̧kwe}}'''; '''{{lang|mh|yokwe}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|yi'yakwey}}
| [[Hello]], [[Parting phrase|goodbye]] and [[love]], similar to the [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''[[aloha]]''; also an expression of sympathy. Its literal, archaic meaning is "You are a rainbow".<ref name="medYokwe">[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/MED2I.htm#iọkwe MED: {{lang|mh|io̧kwe}}]</ref>{{Failed verification|date=October 2014}}
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|irwōj}}'''; '''{{lang|mh|irooj}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|yir'w&j, yir&w&j}}
| [[Iroij]], the various [[paramount chieftain]]s of [[Marshallese culture]]
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|jaab}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|jahap}}
| [[Yes and no|No]].
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|kom̧m̧ool tata}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|kwemhmhewel tahtah}}
| [[wiktionary:thank you|Thank you]] very much. {{lang|mh|Kom̧m̧ool}} alone means "thank you".
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|kōn jouj}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|k&n j&wij}}
| You're welcome. Literally "for kindness".
|-
| '''{{lang|mh|Kūrjin}}'''
| {{IPAc-mh|kirjin}}
| [[Christianity|Christian]]: The majority [[religion]] of the Marshall Islands
|}

===Cardinal numbers===
This includes the cardinal numbers one through ten in the Rālik dialect. Where Ratak forms differ, they are listed in parentheses.
# '''{{lang|mh|juon}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jiwen}}
# '''{{lang|mh|ruo}}''' {{IPAc-mh|riwew}}
# '''{{lang|mh|jilu}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jiliw}}
# '''{{lang|mh|emān}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yeman}}
# '''{{lang|mh|l‌̧alem}}''' {{IPAc-mh|lhal&m}}
# '''{{lang|mh|jiljino}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jijinew}} (the {{lang|mh|l}} is silent<ref name="r12">{{harvp|Rudiak-Gould|2004|p=12}}</ref>)
# '''{{lang|mh|jimjuon}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jimjiwen}}
# '''{{lang|mh|ralitōk}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rahliyt&k}} ('''{{lang|mh|ejino}}''')
# '''{{lang|mh|ratimjuon}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rahtimjiwen}} ('''{{lang|mh|ejilimjuon}}''')
# '''{{lang|mh|jon̄oul}}''' {{IPAc-mh|j&ngw&wil}}

===Months===
# '''{{lang|mh|Jānwōde}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jan'werey}}, 'January'
# '''{{lang|mh|Pāpode}}''' {{IPAc-mh|papewrey}}, 'February'
# '''{{lang|mh|M̧aaj}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mhahaj}}, 'March'
# '''{{lang|mh|Eprōl‌̧}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yeprelh}}, 'April'
# '''{{lang|mh|Māe}}''' {{IPAc-mh|may&y}}, 'May'
# '''{{lang|mh|Juun}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jiwin}}, 'June'
# '''{{lang|mh|Jul‌̧ae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jiwlhahyey}}, 'July'
# '''{{lang|mh|O̧kwōj}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wakwej}}, 'August'
# '''{{lang|mh|Jeptōm̧ba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jeptemhbah}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Jebtōm̧ba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jebtemhbah}}, 'September'
# '''{{lang|mh|Oktoba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wektewbah}}, 'October'
# '''{{lang|mh|Nobōm̧ba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|newbemhbah}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Nopem̧ba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|newpemhbah}}, 'November'
# '''{{lang|mh|Tijem̧ba}}''' {{IPAc-mh|tiyjemhbah}}, 'December'

===Weekdays===
# '''{{lang|mh|Jabōt}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jabet}}, 'Sunday; Sabbath'
# '''{{lang|mh|M̧ande}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mhandey}}, 'Monday'
# '''{{lang|mh|Juje}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jiwjey}}, 'Tuesday'
# '''{{lang|mh|Wōnje}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wenjey}}, 'Wednesday'
# '''{{lang|mh|Taije}}''' {{IPAc-mh|tahyijey}}, 'Thursday'
# '''{{lang|mh|Bōraide}}''' {{IPAc-mh|berahyidey}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Bōl‌̧aide}}''' {{IPAc-mh|belhahyidey}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Būl‌̧āide}}''' {{IPAc-mh|bilhayidey}}, 'Friday'
# '''{{lang|mh|Jādede}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jadeydey}}, 'Saturday'

===Marshallese atolls and islands===
* '''{{lang|mh|M̧ajel‌̧}}''' or '''{{lang|mh|M̧ajōl‌̧}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mhahjelh}}, '[[Marshall Islands]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Ratak}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rahtak}}, '[[Ratak Chain]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Aelok}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hay&l&kw}}, '[[Ailuk Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Arn‌̧o}}''' {{IPAc-mh|harnhew}}, '[[Arno Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Aur}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hawir}}, '[[Aur Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Ādkup}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yadkwip}}, '[[Erikub Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Bokaak}}''' or '''{{lang|mh|Bok-ak}}''' {{IPAc-mh|bekwhak}}, '[[Bokak Atoll|Bokak (Taongi) Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Jāmo̧}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jaymaw}}, '[[Jemo Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Likiep}}''' {{IPAc-mh|likiyep}}, '[[Likiep Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Mājeej}}''' {{IPAc-mh|majeyej}} or '''{{lang|mh|Mājej}}''' {{IPAc-mh|majyej}}, '[[Mejit Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Mājro}}''' {{IPAc-mh|majr&w}}, '[[Majuro|Majuro Atoll]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Jarōj}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jarej}}, '[[Djarrit]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|L‌̧ora}}''' {{IPAc-mh|lhewrah}}, '[[Laura, Marshall Islands|Laura]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Tel‌̧ap}}''' {{IPAc-mh|teylhap}}, '[[Delap]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Wūlka}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wilkah}}, '[[Uliga]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Mile}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mil&y}}, '[[Mili Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|M̧al‌̧o-el‌̧ap}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mhalhew-yelhap}}, '[[Maloelap Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|N‌̧a-dikdik}}''' {{IPAc-mh|nhah-dikdik}}, '[[Knox Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Pikaar}}''' {{IPAc-mh|pikahar}}, '[[Bikar Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Tōkā}}''' {{IPAc-mh|tekay}}, '[[Toke Atoll|Toke (Taka) Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Utrōk}}''' {{IPAc-mh|witr&k}}, '[[Utirik Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Wōjjā}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wejjay}}, '[[Wotje Atoll]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Rālik}}''' {{IPAc-mh|raylik}}, '[[Ralik Chain]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Aelōn̄in-ae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hay&l&ngin-hayey}}, '[[Ailinginae Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Aelōn̄l‌̧apl‌̧ap}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hay&l&nglhaplhap}}, '[[Ailinglaplap Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Āne-wātak}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yan&y-waytak}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Ānewetak}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yan&yweytak}}, '[[Enewetak Atoll|Enewetak (Eniwetok) Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Ellep}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yellep}}, '[[Lib Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Epoon}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yepewen}}, '[[Ebon Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Jālwōj}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jal'w&j}} or '''{{lang|mh|Jālooj}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jal&w&j}}, '[[Jaluit Atoll]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Jebwad}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jeb'wad}}, '[[Jabor (Marshall Islands)|Jabor Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Jebat}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jebat}}, '[[Jabat Island|Jabat (Jabot, Jabwot) Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Kōle}}''' {{IPAc-mh|k&l&y}}, '[[Kili Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Kuwajleen}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kwiwajleyen}}, '[[Kwajalein Atoll]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Epjā}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yepjay}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Ibae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yibahyey}}, '[[Ebeye Island]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Lae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|lahyey}}, '[[Lae Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Nam̧dik}}''' {{IPAc-mh|namhdik}}, '[[Namdrik Atoll|Namdrik (Namorik) Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Nam̧o}}''' {{IPAc-mh|namh&w}}, '[[Namu Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Pikinni}}''' {{IPAc-mh|pikinniy}}, '[[Bikini Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Ron̄dik}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rwengwdik}}, '[[Rongerik Atoll|Rongerik (Rongdrik) Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Ron̄l‌̧ap}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rwengwlhap}}, '[[Rongelap Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Wōtto}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wettew}}, '[[Wotho Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Wūjae}}''' or '''{{lang|mh|Ujae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wijahyey}}, '[[Ujae Atoll]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Wūjlan̄}}''' or '''{{lang|mh|Ujlan̄}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wijlang}}, '[[Ujelang Atoll]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Āneen-kio}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yan&y&n-kiyew}}, '[[Wake Island|Wake (Enenkio) Atoll]]' (claimed by the Marshall Islands, administered by the [[United States]])

===Other countries and places===
* '''{{lang|mh|Amedka}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hamedkah}}, '[[United States]] (America)'
** '''{{lang|mh|Awai}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hawahyiy}}, '[[Hawaii]]', where a Marshallese diaspora lives
** '''{{lang|mh|Kalboonea}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kalbewenyah}}, '[[California]]', where a Marshallese diaspora lives
** '''{{lang|mh|O̧kōnjo̧}}''' {{IPAc-mh|wakwenjaw}}, '[[Arkansas]]', where a large Marshallese diaspora lives
* '''{{lang|mh|Aujtōrōlia}}''' {{IPAc-mh|hawijtereliyah}}, '[[Australia]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|Eijia}}''' {{IPAc-mh|y&yijiyah}}, '[[Asia]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Jaina}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jahyinah}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Jāina}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jayinah}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Jeina}}''' {{IPAc-mh|j&yinah}}, '[[China]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Jepaan}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jepahan}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Nibbon̄}}''' {{IPAc-mh|nibbengw}}, '[[Japan]] (Nippon)', former colonial ruler
** '''{{lang|mh|Kuria}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kwiriyah}}, '[[Korea]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Pilipin}}''' {{IPAc-mh|pilipin}}, '[[Philippines]]', former colonial administrator under Spanish rule
** '''{{lang|mh|Rojia}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rw&wjiyah}}, '[[Russia]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Taiwan}}''' {{IPAc-mh|tahy'iwan}}, '[[Taiwan]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|In̄len}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yinglen}}, '[[England]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|Jam̧uwa}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jahmhiwwah}}, '[[Samoa]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|Jāmne}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jamney}}, '[[Germany]]', former colonial ruler
* '''{{lang|mh|Jipein}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jip&yin}}, '[[Spain]]', former colonial ruler
* '''{{lang|mh|M̧aikronijia}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mhahyikrwenijiyah}}, '[[Micronesia]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Karol‌̧āin}}''' {{IPAc-mh|karewlhayin}}, '[[Caroline Islands]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Bōl‌̧au}}''' {{IPAc-mh|belhahwiw}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Bōl‌̧ao}}''' {{IPAc-mh|belhahwew}}, '[[Palau]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|FSM}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yepejem}}, '[[Federated States of Micronesia]] (F.S.M.)'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Boonpe}}''' {{IPAc-mh|b&w&np&y}}, '[[Pohnpei]] (Ponape)'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Iaab}}''' {{IPAc-mh|yi'yahab}}, '[[Yap]]'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Kujjae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kwijjahyey}}, also '''{{lang|mh|Kōjae}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kejahyey}}, '[[Kosrae]] (Kusaie)'
**** '''{{lang|mh|Ruk}}''' {{IPAc-mh|rikw}}, '[[Chuuk State|Chuuk]] (Truk)'
** '''{{lang|mh|Kilbōt}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kilbet}}, '[[Kiribati]] (Gilbert Islands)'
** '''{{lang|mh|M̧adianna}}''' {{IPAc-mh|madiyhannah}}, '[[Mariana Islands]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Jāipaan}}''' {{IPAc-mh|jayipahan}}, '[[Saipan]]'
*** '''{{lang|mh|Kuwaam̧}}''' {{IPAc-mh|kwiwahamh}}, '[[Guam]]'
** '''{{lang|mh|Nawōdo}}''' {{IPAc-mh|nahwedew}}, '[[Nauru]] (Naoero)'
* '''{{lang|mh|Mejjiko}}''' {{IPAc-mh|mejjikew}}, '[[Mexico]]', former colonial administrator under Spanish rule
* '''{{lang|mh|Nijiil‌̧ōn}}''' {{IPAc-mh|niwjiyilhen}}, '[[New Zealand]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|Nukne}}''' {{IPAc-mh|nikwn&y}}, also {{IPAc-mh|nikwney}}, '[[New Guinea]]', former colonial administrator under German rule
* '''{{lang|mh|Piji}}''' {{IPAc-mh|piyjiy}}, '[[Fiji]]'
* '''{{lang|mh|Tubal‌̧u}}''' {{IPAc-mh|tiwbahlhiw}}, '[[Tuvalu]]'

==Text examples==

===Modern orthography===
Here is the [[Hail Mary]] in standard Marshallese orthography:

:{{lang|mh|Io̧kwe eok Maria, kwo lōn̄ kōn}}
:{{lang|mh|menin jouj;}}
:{{lang|mh|Irooj ej pād ippam̧.}}
:{{lang|mh|Kwo jeram̧m̧an iaan kōrā ran‌̧ im}}
:{{lang|mh|ejeram̧m̧an ineen lo̧jiōm̧, Jesus.}}
:{{lang|mh|O Maria kwojarjar, jinen Anij,}}
:{{lang|mh|kwōn jar kōn kem rijjerawiwi.}}
:{{lang|mh|Kiiō im ilo iien}}
:{{lang|mh|amwōj mej. Amen.}}

===Older orthography===
Here is the [[Lord's Prayer]] from the 1982 Marshallese Bible, which uses the older orthography:

:{{lang|mh|Jememuij iljōn̄:}}
:{{lang|mh|En kwojarjar im utiej etam;}}
:{{lang|mh|En itok am Ailin̄;}}
:{{lang|mh|Kimin kōmōnmōn ankilam ilōl einwōt air kōmmōn ilōn.}}
:{{lang|mh|Letok n̄ōn kim kijim rainin.}}
:{{lang|mh|Jolok amuij bwid ibbam,}}
:{{lang|mh|Einwōt kimij julok bwid ko an ro jet ibbem.}}
:{{lang|mh|Am melejjon̄e kim en jab ellā jen jon̄an,}}
:{{lang|mh|Ak kwon kejbarok kim jen Eo Enana.}}
:{{lang|mh|Bwe am Ailin̄ im kajur im aibuijuij indrio, Amen.}}

==References==
{{reflist|24em}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book|last1=Abo|first1=Takaji|last2=Bender|first2=Byron|last3=Capelle|first3=Alfred|last4=DeBrum |first4=Tony|title=Marshallese–English Dictionary|year=1976|publisher=University Press of Hawai‘i |url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/index.htm|access-date=December 29, 2012}}
*{{cite journal|last=Bender|first=Byron|year=1968|title=Marshallese Phonology|journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=7|issue=1|pages=16–35|doi=10.2307/3622845|jstor=3622845}}
*{{cite book|last=Bender|first=Byron|year=1969|title=Spoken Marshallese: an intensive language course with grammatical notes and glossary|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|isbn=0-87022-070-5 |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/spokenmarshalles0000bend}}
*{{cite journal|ref={{sfnref|Bender et al.|2003}} |last1=Bender |first1=Byron W. |first2=Ward H. |last2=Goodenough |first3=Frederick H. |last3=Jackson |first4=Jeffrey C. |last4=Marck |first5=Kenneth L. |last5=Rehg |first6=Ho-min |last6=Sohn |first7=Stephen |last7=Trussel |first8=Judith W. |last8=Wang |title=Proto-Micronesian Reconstructions: I|journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=2003 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=1–110 |jstor=3623449 |doi=10.2307/3623449}}
*{{cite journal|last=Choi|first=John|year=1992|title=Phonetic Underspecification and Target Interpolation: An Acoustic Study of Marshallese Vowel Allophony|journal=Working Papers in Phonetics|volume=82|location=Los Angeles |publisher=UCLA|url=http://escholarship.org/uc/item/07b9m6x8|access-date=December 30, 2012}}
*{{cite book|last=Miller|first=Rachel|year=2010|title=Wa kuk wa jimor: Outrigger canoes, social change, and modern life in the Marshall Islands|publisher=University of Hawai’i|hdl=10125/21114}}
*{{cite book|last=Rudiak-Gould|first=Peter|year=2004|title=Practical Marshallese|publisher=[[WorldTeach]] |url=http://www.peterrg.com/Practical%20Marshallese.pdf|access-date=December 5, 2012}}
*{{citation|last=Willson|first=Heather|year=2002|title=The Marshallese Complementizer Phrase |publisher= Arizona State University |url=http://hwillson.bol.ucla.edu/TheMarshalleseComplemetizerPhrase.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304033019/http://hwillson.bol.ucla.edu/TheMarshalleseComplemetizerPhrase.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=March 4, 2016|access-date=December 10, 2012}}
*{{cite book|last=Willson|first=Heather|year=2003|title=A Brief Introduction to Marshallese Phonology |url=http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/ABriefIntroductiontoMarshallesePhonology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616075641/linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/ABriefIntroductiontoMarshallesePhonology.pdf | archive-date=June 16, 2024 |url-status=dead |access-date=December 4, 2012}}
*{{cite book|last=Willson|first=Heather|year=2008|title=Subject Positions in Marshallese |url=http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/Subject%20Positions%20In%20Marshallese.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111113111611/http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/hwills1/Subject%20Positions%20In%20Marshallese.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 13, 2011 |access-date=December 10, 2012|publisher=University of California, Los Angeles}}

==Further reading==
* Bender, Byron W. (1969). Vowel dissimilation in Marshallese. In ''Working papers in linguistics'' (No. 11, pp.&nbsp;88–96). University of Hawaii.
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bender | first1 = Byron W | year = 1973 | title = Parallelisms in the morphophonemics of several Micronesian languages | journal = Oceanic Linguistics | volume = 12 | issue = 1/2| pages = 455–477 | doi=10.2307/3622863| jstor = 3622863 }}
*{{cite book |last=Erdland |first=August |year=1906 |title=Wörterbuch und Grammatik der Marschall-Sprache |series=Archiv für das Studium der deutschen Kolonialsprachen IV |language=de |location=Berlin |publisher=Georg Reimer |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_-FZIAQAAMAAJ/page/n255 }}
* Hale, Mark. (2007) Chapter 5 of ''Historical Linguistics: Theory and Method''. Blackwell
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hale | first1 = Mark | year = 2000 | title = Marshallese phonology, the phonetics-phonology interface and historical linguistics | journal = The Linguistic Review | volume = 17 | issue = 2–4| pages = 241–257 | doi=10.1515/tlir.2000.17.2-4.241| s2cid = 143601901 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Kroeber |first=A. L. |year=1911 |title=Phonetics of the Micronesian Language of the Marshall Islands |journal=American Anthropologist |series=New Series |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=380–393 |doi=10.1525/aa.1911.13.3.02a00020 |jstor=659915 |doi-access=free |hdl=10524/11920 |hdl-access=free }}
* Pagotto, L. (1987). ''Verb subcategorization and verb derivation in Marshallese: a lexicase analysis''.

==External links==
{{Incubator|code=mh}}
{{sister project links|d=Q36280|c=Category:Marshallese language|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|wikt=Category:Marshallese language|s=no|q=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|display=Marshallese}}
*[https://sites.google.com/site/lalenaan/ ''Naan'', a free Marshallese–English Dictionary for beginner/intermediate learners of both languages]
*[http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/ Marshallese–English Online Dictionary]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051110235126/http://www.rmiembassyus.org/Marshallese%20Phrasebook.htm Marshallese Phrasebook on the website for the Republic of Marshall Islands] lists the Marshallese word for the Marshallese language as {{lang|mh|kajin Majöl}}
*[http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rscook/pdf/PCMLT-JejeinM.pdf Peace Corps Marshall Islands ''Marshallese Language Training Manual''] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]], 275 KB; instead of macrons uses trema on vowels and tilde on ''n'', and underlines instead of cedillas)
*[http://faroutliers.blogspot.com/2004/08/marshallese-spelling-reforms.html Marshallese Spelling Reforms] article in the blog, "Far Outliers"
*[[Kaipuleohone]] has recordings of [https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/27416 stories from the 1950s] as well as [[hdl:10125/32782|index cards of plant and animal words]]
*Materials on Marshallese are included in the open access [[Arthur Capell]] collections ([http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC1 AC1] and [http://catalog.paradisec.org.au/collections/AC2 AC2]) held by [[Paradisec]]

{{Micronesian languages}}
{{Austronesian languages}}
{{Oceania topic|Languages of}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Marshallese language| ]]
[[Category:Micronesian languages]]
[[Category:Vertical vowel systems]]