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{{War}}
[[File:Bronze statue of dancing warrior 480 bC lower italy.jpg|thumb|[[Infantry]] were the first military forces in history. This warrior statuette demonstrates that military culture was an important part of historical societies, c.480 BC, [[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]].]]
'''Military history''' is the study of [[War|armed conflict]] in the [[Human history|history of humanity]], and its impact on the societies, cultures and economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to [[Politics|local]] and [[international relations]]hips.

Professional historians normally focus on military affairs that had a major impact on the societies involved as well as the aftermath of conflicts, while amateur historians and hobbyists often take a larger interest in the details of battles, equipment, and uniforms in use.

The essential subjects of military history study are the causes of war, the social and cultural foundations, [[Doctrine#Military usage|military doctrine on each side]], the logistics, leadership, technology, [[strategy]], and [[military tactics|tactics]] used, and how these changed over time. On the other hand, [[just war theory]] explores the moral dimensions of warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to establish a doctrine of military ethics.

As an applied field, military history has been studied at academies and service schools because the [[Command and control (military)|military command]] seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past. When certifying military history instructors<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://usacac.army.mil/organizations/cace/csi/mhic|title=Military History Instructor Course (MHIC) &#124; US Army Combined Arms Center|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-date=2016-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422130640/http://usacac.army.mil/organizations/cace/csi/mhic|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Combat Studies Institute]] deemphasizes rote detail memorization and focuses on themes and context in relation to current and future conflict, using the motto "Past is Prologue."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thegriffon108.com/articles/article-detail/articleid/3987/becoming-a-military-history-instructor-in-the-army.aspx|title=Becoming a Military History Instructor in the Army|work=The Griffon 108th|access-date=2016-04-06|archive-date=2016-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420171300/http://www.thegriffon108.com/articles/article-detail/articleid/3987/becoming-a-military-history-instructor-in-the-army.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing with development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that make use of it.<ref>Cowley, Parker, p. xiii</ref> The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is largely due to the rapid change of military forces, and the art and science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of [[Technological evolution|technological development]] that had taken place during the period known as the [[Industrial Revolution]], and more recently in the [[Nuclear proliferation|nuclear]] and [[information age]]s. An important recent concept is the [[Revolution in Military Affairs]] (RMA) which attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by emerging technologies, such as gunpowder. It highlights the short outbursts of rapid change followed by periods of relative stability.

==Popular versus academic military history==
In terms of the history profession in major countries, military history is an orphan, despite its enormous popularity with the general public. [[William H. McNeill (historian)|William H. McNeill]] points out:
:This branch of our discipline flourishes in an intellectual ghetto. The 144 books in question [published in 1968-78] fall into two distinct classes: works aimed at a popular readership, written by journalists and men of letters outside academic circles, and professional work nearly always produced within the military establishment.... The study of military history in universities remains seriously underdeveloped. Indeed, lack of interest in and disdain for military history probably constitute one of the strangest prejudices of the profession.<ref>William H McNeill, "Modern European History" in Michael Kammen, ed., ''The Past Before Us: Contemporary Historical Writing in the United States'' (1980) pp. 99–100</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Ian F W Beckett|title=A Guide to British Military History: The Subject and the Sources|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DILbCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|year=2016|publisher=Pen and Sword|page=24|isbn=978-1473856677}}</ref>

In recent decades University level courses in military history remain popular; often they use films to humanize the combat experience. For example, Eugene P. A. Scleh, history professor at the University of Maine, has explored the advantages and problems of teaching a course of "Modern War and Its Images" entirely through films. Students said they found the documentaries more valuable than the dramas.<ref>Eugene P. A. Scleh, "Teaching History Through Film", ''Film & History'' (1973) 3#3 pp 12–16.</ref> However, military historians are frustrated by their marginal status in major history departments.<ref>John A. Lynn, "Rally Once Again: The Embattled Future of Academic Military History", ''Journal of Military History'' 61 (Oct. 1997), 777–89 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954086 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714101657/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954086 |date=2021-07-14 }}.</ref><ref>[[Ronald H. Spector]], "Teetering on the Brink of Respectability." ''Journal of American History'' (2007) 93(4): 1158–1160. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25094603 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210714100952/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25094603 |date=2021-07-14 }}</ref>

Academic historians concerned with military topics have their own scholarly organization, [[Society for Military History]]. Since 1937 it has published ''The Journal of Military History''. Its four issues a year include scholarly articles reviews of new books, and a bibliography of new publications and dissertations. The Society has 2300 members, holds an annual convention, and gives out prizes for the best scholarship.<ref>John Whiteclay Chambers, "The new military history: myth and reality." ''The Journal of Military History'' 55.3 (1991): 395+.</ref>

==Historiography of military history==
[[Historiography]] is the study of the history and method of the discipline of history or the study of a specialised topic. In this case, military history with an eye to gaining an accurate assessment of conflicts using all available sources. For this reason military history is periodised, creating overlaying boundaries of study and analysis in which descriptions of battles by leaders may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failure and exaggerate success. Military historians use Historiographical analysis in an effort to allow an unbiased, contemporary view of records.<ref>Morillo, Pevkovic, pp. 4–5</ref>

One military historian, Jeremy Black, outlined problems 21st-century military historians face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological bias, a focus on leading military powers and dominant military systems, the separation of land from sea and recently air conflicts, the focus on state-to-state conflict, a lack of focus on political "tasking" in how forces are used.<ref name="p.ix, Black">Black (2004), p. ix</ref>

If these challenges were not sufficient for military historians, the limits of method are complicated by the lack of records, either destroyed or never recorded due to their value as a [[military secret]]. Scholars still do not know the exact nature of [[Greek fire]], for instance. Researching Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, for example, have presented unique challenges to historians due to records that were destroyed to protect classified military information, among other reasons. Historians use their knowledge of government regulation and military organization, and employing a targeted and systematic research strategy to piece together war histories.<ref>Bergen, Hilary, ''Documenting Shock and Awe: Researching Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom'' History Associations, 2015. http://www.historyassociates.com/blog/historical-research-blog/researching-iraq-and-afghanistan-wars/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150803031135/http://www.historyassociates.com/blog/historical-research-blog/researching-iraq-and-afghanistan-wars/ |date=2015-08-03 }}</ref> Despite these limits, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of human history.

Military historians have often [[Comparative history|compared]] organization, tactical and strategic ideas, leadership, and national support of the militaries of different nations.<ref>Paul Kennedy, ''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000'' (Random House, 1987)</ref>

In the early 1980s, historian [[Jeffrey Kimball (historian)|Jeffrey Kimball]] studied the influence of a historian's political position on current events on interpretive disagreement regarding the causes of 20th century wars. He surveyed the ideological preferences of 109 active diplomatic historians in the United States as well as 54 active military historians. He finds that their current political views are moderately correlated with their historiographical interpretations. A clear position on the left-right continuum regarding capitalism was apparent in most cases. All groups agreed with the proposition, "historically, Americans have tended to view questions of their national security in terms of such extremes as good vs. evil." Though the Socialists were split, the other groups agreed that "miscalculation and/or misunderstanding of the situation" had caused U.S. interventionism." Kimball reports that:
:Of historians in the field of diplomatic history, 7% are Socialist, 19% are Other, 53% are Liberal, 11% are None and 10% Conservative. Of military historians, 0% are Socialist, 8% are Other, 35% are Liberal, 18% are None and 40% are Conservative.<ref>Jeffrey Kimball, "The Influence of Ideology on Interpretive Disagreement: A Report on a Survey of Diplomatic, Military and Peace Historians on the Causes of 20th Century U. S. Wars", ''The History Teacher''  (May, 1984) 17#3 pp. 355–384 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/493146.pdf in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161225145354/http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/493146.pdf |date=2016-12-25 }}</ref>

===Online resources===
People interested in military history from all periods of time, and all subtopics, are increasingly turning to the Internet for many more resources than are typically available in nearby libraries. Since 1993, one of the most popular sites, with over 4000 members (subscriptions are free) has been H-WAR, sponsored by the [[H-Net]] network based at Michigan State University.<ref>See [https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/pages/57133/h-war-policies H-War policies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215222719/https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/pages/57133/h-war-policies |date=2018-12-15 }}</ref> H-War has six coeditors, and an academic advisory board that sets policy. It sponsors daily moderated discussions of current topics, announcements of new publications and conferences, and reports on developments at conferences. The H-Net family of lists has sponsored and published over 46,000 scholarly book reviews, thousands of which deal with books in military history broadly conceived.<ref>See [https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/reviews H-War book reviews] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215224201/https://networks.h-net.org/node/12840/reviews |date=2018-12-15 }}</ref> Wikipedia itself has a very wide coverage of military history, [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Assessment#statistics|with over 180,000 articles]]. Its editors sponsor [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history]] and encourage readers to join.<ref>Richard Jensen,  "Military history on the electronic frontier: Wikipedia fights the War of 1812." ''The Journal of Military History'' 76.4 (2012): 523–556 [http://www.academia.edu/download/31407940/rj-1812.pdf online]{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}.</ref>

===Military and war museums{{anchor|military museum}} <!-- multiple articles direct to this anchor -->===
[[File:Canadianwarmuseummgs.jpg|thumb|The [[Canadian War Museum]].]]
{{Category see also|Military and war museums}}
Military museums specialize in military histories; they are often organized from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular country will have displays organized around conflicts in which that country has taken part. They typically take a broad view of warfare's role in the nation's history.<ref>Stephen Wood, "Too serious a business to be left to military men"" ''Museum International'' 38.1 (1986): 20–26.</ref> They typically include displays of weapons and other military equipment, [[Military uniform|uniforms]], wartime [[propaganda]], and exhibits on civilian life during wartime, and [[Military orders, awards and decorations|decorations]], among others. A military museum may be dedicated to a particular or area, such as the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]] for military aircraft, [[German Tank Museum|Deutsches Panzermuseum]] for tanks, the [[Lange Max Museum]] for the [[Western Front (World War I)]], the [[International Spy Museum]] for espionage, [[Liberty Memorial#The National World War I Museum|The National World War I Museum]] for [[World War I]], the "D-Day Paratroopers Historical Center" (Normandy) for WWII airborne, or more generalist, such as the [[Canadian War Museum]] or the [[Musée de l'Armée]]. For the Italian alpine wall one can find the most popular museum of bunkers in the small museum [https://www.n8bunker.com/ n8bunker] at Olang / Kronplatz in the heard of the dolomites of [[South Tyrol]]. The U.S. Army and the state National Guards operate 98 military history museums across the United States and three abroad.<ref>R. Cody Phillips,, "The Guide to US Army Museums" (Center for Military History, 2005) [https://history.army.mil/html/books/070/70-51/CMH_Pub_70-51.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502014041/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/070/70-51/CMH_Pub_70-51.pdf |date=2017-05-02 }}</ref>

Curators debate how or whether the goal of providing diverse representations of war, in terms of positive and negative aspects of warfare. War is seldom presented as a good thing, but soldiers are heavily praised. David Lowenthal has observed that in today's museums, "nothing seems too horrendous to commemorate". Yet as Andrew Whitmarsh notes, "museums frequently portray a sanitised version of warfare."<ref>Andrew Whitmarsh, "'We Will Remember Them': Memory and Commemoration in War Museums." ''Journal of Conservation and Museum Studies''  (2001) vol 7 pp. 11–15.</ref> The actual bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Japan became the focus of an angry national controversy with veterans attacking curators and historians when the Smithsonian Institution planned to put its fuselage on public display in 1995. The [[Enola Gay#Exhibition controversy|uproar]] led to cancellation of the exhibit.<ref>Otto Mayr, "The  'Enola Gay' Fiasco: History, Politics, and the Museum." ''Technology and culture'' 39.3 (1998): 462–473. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1215894 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217014802/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1215894 |date=2018-12-17 }}</ref>

==Early historians==
The documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between [[Sumer]] (current [[Iraq]]) and [[Elam]] (current [[Iran]]) c. 2700 BC near the modern [[Basra]]. Other prominent records in military history are the [[Trojan War]] in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' (though its [[historicity of the Iliad|historicity]] has been challenged), ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'' by [[Herodotus]] (484–425 BC) who is often called the "father of history".<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/tasmania/stories/s999564.htm "Herodotus: The father of history"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051231110832/http://www.abc.net.au/tasmania/stories/s999564.htm |date=2005-12-31 }}, Warburton</ref> Next was [[Thucydides]] whose impartiality, despite being an [[Athens|Athenian]], allowed him to take advantage of his exile to research the war from different perspectives by carefully examining documents and interviewing eyewitnesses.<ref>Farah, Karls, pp. 137–138</ref> An approach centered on the analysis of a leader was taken by [[Xenophon]] (430–355 BC) in ''[[Anabasis (Xenophon)|Anabasis]]'', recording the expedition of [[Cyrus the Younger]] into [[Anatolia]].

The memoirs of the Roman [[Julius Caesar#Memoirs|Julius Caesar]] (100–44 BC) enable a comparative approach for campaigns such as ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' and ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili]]''.

==Technological evolution==
{{main|History of military technology}}
{{rquote|right|The nature of warfare ''never'' changes, only its superficial manifestations. [[Joshua]] and [[David]], [[Hector]] and [[Achilles]] would recognize the combat that our soldiers and Marines have waged in the alleys of Somalia and Iraq. The uniforms evolve, bronze gives way to titanium, arrows may be replaced by laser-guided bombs, but the heart of the matter is still killing your enemies until any survivors surrender and do your will.|[[Ralph Peters]]<ref>Peters, Ralph. ''New Glory: Expanding America's Supremacy'', 2005. p. 30</ref>}}
[[File:Ramsés II en Qadesh, relieve de Abu Simbel.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Relief of [[Ramses II]] located in [[Abu Simbel]] fighting at the [[Battle of Kadesh]] on a [[chariot]].]]

New weapons development can dramatically alter the face of war, the cost of warfare, the preparations, and the training of soldiers and leaders. A rule of thumb is that if your enemy has a potentially war winning weapon, you have to either match it or neutralize it.<ref>Barton C. Hacker, "Military institutions, weapons, and social change: Toward a new history of military technology." ''[[Technology and Culture]]'' 35.4 (1994): 768–834.</ref>

===Ancient era===
[[Chariot]]s originated around 2000 BC. The chariot was an effective, fast weapon; while one man controlled the maneuvering of the chariot, a second bowman could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became crucial to the maintenance of several governments, including the [[New Egyptian Kingdom]] and the [[Shang dynasty]] and the nation states of the early to middle [[Zhou dynasty]].<ref>Mary Aiken Littauer, "The military use of the chariot in the Aegean in the Late Bronze Age." ''[[American Journal of Archaeology]]'' 76.2 (1972): 145–157. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/503858 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424211831/http://www.jstor.org/stable/503858 |date=2016-04-24 }}</ref><ref>P.R.S. Moorey, "The emergence of the light, horse‐drawn chariot in the Near‐East c. 2000–1500 BC." ''[[World Archaeology]]'' 18.2 (1986): 196–215.</ref>

Some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed in the ancient world are:<ref>Richard Ernest Dupuy, and Trevor Nevitt Dupuy, ''The encyclopedia of military history: from 3500 BC to the present'' (1970).</ref>
* [[Sling (weapon)|Slinger]]
* [[Hoplite]]
* [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)|Auxiliaries]]
* [[Infantry]]
* [[Archery]]
* [[Chariots]]
* [[Cavalry]]

For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry became the core of military action. The infantry started as opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath commanders. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed [[phalanx formation|phalanxes]]. The Macedonians and Hellenistic states would adopt phalanx formations with [[sarissa]] pikemen. The [[Roman Army|Romans]] would later adopt more flexible [[maniple (military unit)|maniples]] from their neighbors which made them extremely successful in the field of battle. The kingdoms of the [[Warring States period|Warring States]] in East Asia also adopted infantry combat, a transition from chariot warfare from centuries earlier.<ref>Robin D.S. Yates, "New Light on Ancient Chinese Military Texts: Notes on Their Nature and Evolution, and the Development of Military Specialization in Warring States China." ''[[T'oung Pao]]'' (1988): 211–248. {{JSTOR|4528419}}</ref>

[[Archery|Archers]] were a major component of many ancient armies, notably those of the Persians, Scythians, Egyptians, Nubians, Indians, Chinese, Koreans and Japanese.

<!-- Battle of Marathon an earlier example of the importance of cavalry -->
[[Cavalry]] became an important tool. In the [[Sicilian Expedition]], led by Athens in an attempt to subdue [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the success of the Syracusans. [[Macedon]]ian [[Alexander the Great]] effectively deployed his cavalry forces to secure victories. In battles such as the [[Battle of Cannae]] of the [[Second Punic War]], and the [[Battle of Carrhae]] of the [[Roman-Persian Wars]], the importance of the cavalry would be repeated.<ref>Leslie J. Worley, ''Hippeis: the cavalry of Ancient Greece'' (1994).</ref>

There were also [[horse archer]]s, who had the ability to shoot on horseback—the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]], [[Scythians]], [[Mongols]], and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, [[heavy cavalry|heavily armored cavalry]] became widely adopted by the Parthians, [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]], [[Eastern Roman Empire|Byzantines]], [[Eastern Han dynasty]] and [[Three Kingdoms]], etc.

<!--Even in the [[First World War]], cavalry was still considered important; the British mobilized 165,000 horses, the Austrians 600,000, the Germans 715,000, and the Russians more than a million.<ref name=Keegan>Keegan, p. 73</ref>-->
The early [[Indo-Iranians]] developed the use of [[war chariot|chariots]] in warfare. The [[scythed chariot]] was later invented in India and soon adopted by the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]].<ref>Jeffrey Rop,  "Reconsidering the Origin of the Scythed Chariot." ''[[Historia (Antiquity journal)|Historia]]'' 62.2 (2013): 167–181.</ref>

[[War elephant]]s were sometimes deployed for fighting in ancient warfare. They were first used in India and later adopted by the Persians. War elephants were also used in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes River]], and by [[Hannibal]] in the [[Second Punic War]] against the Romans.<ref>[[William Frederick Gowers|William Gowers]], "The African elephant in warfare." ''[[African Affairs]]'' 46.182 (1947): 42–49. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a093538}}, {{JSTOR|718841}}</ref> One of the most important military transactions of the ancient world was [[Chandragupta Maurya]]'s gift of 500 elephants to [[Seleucus I Nicator]].<ref>{{cite web | title = A History of India | url = https://eg4.nic.in/jnv/DFILES/EBOOKS/IR/AHistoryofIndia.pdf | author = Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund | date = 1998 | publisher = Routledge | page = 8 | access-date = 2021-04-08 | archive-date = 2021-06-23 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210623203319/https://eg4.nic.in/jnv/DFILES/EBOOKS/IR/AHistoryofIndia.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

[[File:Trireme.jpg|250px|right|thumb|A Greek [[trireme]]]]
[[Naval warfare]] was often crucial to military success. Early navies used sailing ships without cannons; often the goal was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink. There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up to ramming speed. [[Galley]]s were used in the [[3000 BC|3rd millennium BC]] by the [[Crete|Cretans]]. The Greeks later advanced these ships.<ref>John S. Morrison, "The Greek Trireme." ''[[The Mariner's Mirror]]'' 27.1 (1941): 14–44.</ref><ref>
H. T. Wallinga, "The Trireme and History" ''[[Mnemosyne (journal)|Mnemosyne]]''  Vol. 43, Fasc. 1/2, 1990 pp. 132–149. {{JSTOR|4431893}}</ref>

In 1210 BC, the first recorded naval battle was fought between [[Suppiluliuma II]], king of the [[Hittites]], and [[Cyprus]], which was defeated. In the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], the navy became of increasing importance.

[[Trireme]]s were involved in more complicated sea-land operations. [[Themistocles]] helped to build up a stronger Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the Persians at the [[Battle of Salamis]], ending the Persian invasion of Greece.<ref>Moerbeek, Martijn (January 21, 1998). [https://web.archive.org/web/20020514151335/http://monolith.dnsalias.org/~marsares/warfare/battle/salamis.html "The battle of Salamis, 480 BC"] Accessed May 16, 2006.</ref>

In the [[First Punic War]], the war between [[Carthage]] and Rome started with an advantage to Carthage because of their naval experience. A Roman fleet was built in 261 BC, with the addition of the [[Corvus (weapon)|corvus]] that allowed Roman soldiers to board enemy ships. The bridge would prove effective at the [[Battle of Mylae]], resulting in a Roman victory.

The [[Vikings]], in the 8th century AD, invented a ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence called the [[Drekar|Drakkar]]. The 12th century AD [[Song dynasty]] invented ships with watertight bulkhead compartments while the 2nd century BC [[Han dynasty]] invented rudders and sculled oars for their warships.

[[Fortification]]s are important in warfare. Early [[hill-fort]]s were used to protect inhabitants in the [[Iron Age]]. They were primitive forts surrounded by ditches filled with water. Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, and other available materials. Romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood and stone. As long as there have been fortifications, there have been contraptions to break in, dating back to the times of [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and earlier. [[Siege warfare]] is often necessary to capture forts.<ref>See [http://www.timeref.com/casterly.htm "The Medieval Castle"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060622183228/http://timeref.com/casterly.htm |date=2006-06-22 }}. Accessed May 16, 2006</ref>

===Middle-ages===
[[File:Takezaki suenaga ekotoba3.jpg|thumb|240px|Japanese [[samurai]] boarding [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] ships in 1281]]
Some of the military unit types and technologies which were used in the medieval period are:
* [[Artillery]]
* [[Cataphract]]
* [[Condottieri]]
* [[Fyrd]]
* [[Rashidun army|Rashidun]]
* [[Mobile guard]]
* [[Mamluk]]
* [[Janissary]]
* [[Knight]] (see also: [[Chivalry]])
* [[Crossbow]]
* [[Pikeman]]
* [[Samurai]]
* [[Sipahi]]
* [[Trebuchet]]

[[Bow (weapon)|Bows]] and [[Arrow (weapon)|arrows]] were often used by combatants. Egyptians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The [[crossbow]] was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used heavily in the [[Middle Ages]].<ref>Selby, Stephen (2001). [http://www.atarn.org/chinese/bjng_xbow/bjng_xbow.htm "A Crossbow Mechanism with Some Unique Features from Shandong, China"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518053806/http://www.atarn.org/chinese/bjng_xbow/bjng_xbow.htm |date=2008-05-18 }}. Accessed on May 17, 2006.</ref> The English/Welsh [[longbow]] from the 12th century also became important in the Middle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the [[Hundred Years' War]], even though the English were eventually defeated. The [[Battle of Crécy]] and the [[Battle of Agincourt]] are excellent examples of how to destroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battlefields for over a century.

===Gunpowder===
{{Main|History of gunpowder}}
[[File:Ming Dynasty eruptor proto-cannon.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Illustration of an "eruptor", a proto-cannon, capable of firing cast-iron bombs filled with gunpowder, from the 14th century Ming dynasty book Huolongjing]]
[[File:Cannon pic.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|A small [[English Civil War]]-era cannon]]
[[File:155fire.jpg|right|thumb|A 155&nbsp;mm [[M198 howitzer]] firing a shell]]
There is evidence for [[gunpowder]] evolving slowly from formulations by [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese alchemists]] as early as the 4th century, at first as experiments for life force and metal transmutation, and later experiments as pyrotechnics and incendiaries. By the 10th century, the developments in gunpowder led to many new weapons that were improved over time.<ref>Brenda J. Buchanan, ed., ''Gunpowder, explosives and the state: a technological history'' (Ashgate, 2006).</ref> The Chinese used incendiary devices based on this in siege warfare against the Mongols starting in the mid 13th century. "Pots with wicks of flax or cotton were used, containing a combination of sulfur, saltpeter ([[potassium nitrate]]), [[aconitine]], oil, resin, ground charcoal and wax."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Raphael|first=Kate|title=Mongol Siege Warfare on the Banks of the Euphrates and the Question of Gunpowder (1260–1312)|jstor=27756073|journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|year=2009|volume=19|issue=3|pages=355–370|doi=10.1017/S1356186309009717|s2cid=162999079}}</ref> [[Joseph Needham]] argued the Chinese were able to destroy buildings and walls using such devices. Such experimentation was not present in Western Europe, where the combination of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal were used exclusively for explosives and as a propellant in firearms. What the Chinese often referred to as the "fire drug" arrived in Europe, fully fleshed out, as gunpowder.<ref name=":14">{{Cite book|title=The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History|last=Andrade|author1-link=Tonio Andrade|first=Tonio|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2016|isbn=978-0691178141}}</ref>

[[Cannon]]s were first used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the [[Hundred Years' War]]. The first cannons were simply welded metal bars in the form of a cylinder, and the first cannonballs were made of stone. By 1346, at the Battle of Crécy, the cannon had been used; at the [[Battle of Agincourt]] they would be used again.<ref>Calvert, J.B. (February 19, 2006) [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm "Cannons and Gunpowder"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701172502/http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm |date=2007-07-01 }}. Accessed on May 18, 2006</ref><ref>H.C.B. Rogers, ''A History of Artillery'' (1975).</ref>

The first infantry firearms, from [[fire lances]] to [[hand cannon]]s, were held in one hand, while the [[explosive charge]] was ignited by a lit match or hot coal held in the other hand. In the mid-15th century came the [[matchlock]], allowing the gun to be aimed and fired while held steady with both hands, as used in the [[arquebus]]. Starting about 1500, clever but complicated firing mechanisms were invented to generate sparks to ignite the powder instead of a lit match, starting with the [[wheel lock]], [[snaplock]], [[snaphance]], and finally the [[flintlock mechanism]], which was simple and reliable, becoming standard with the [[musket]] by the early 17th century.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the first European [[fire ship]]s were used. Ships were filled with flammable materials, set on fire, and sent to enemy lines. This tactic was successfully used by [[Francis Drake]] to scatter the [[Spanish Armada]] at the Battle of [[Gravelines]],<ref>Jorge. [http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/defeat_of_the_armada.htm The "Invincible" Armada] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060512075645/http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/Documents/defeat_of_the_armada.htm |date=2006-05-12 }}. Accessed on May 18, 2006.</ref> and would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks, and several other countries in naval battles.

[[Naval mines]] were invented in the 17th century, though they were not used in great numbers until the [[American Civil War]]. They were used heavily in the [[First World War|First]] and Second World Wars. Air-deployed naval mines were used to mine the [[North Vietnamese]] port of [[Haiphong]] during the [[Vietnam War]]. The [[Iraqi Navy]] of [[Saddam Hussein]] used naval mines extensively during the [[Iran–Iraq War#Attacks on shipping|Tanker War]], as part of the [[Iran–Iraq War]].

The first navigable [[submarine]] was built in 1624 by [[Cornelius Drebbel]], it could cruise at a depth of 15 feet (5&nbsp;m). However, the first military submarine was constructed in 1885 by [[Isaac Peral]].<ref>Tom Parrish, ''The Submarine: A History'' (2004)</ref>

The [[American Turtle|''Turtle'']] was developed by [[David Bushnell]] during the [[American Revolution]]. [[Robert Fulton]] then improved the submarine design by creating the [[Nautilus (1800 submarine)|''Nautilus'']].<ref>{{cite web |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060217031100/http://submarinehistory.homestead.com/EarlyUnderwaterwarfare.html |archive-date=February 17, 2006 |title=Early Underwater Warfare |url=http://submarinehistory.homestead.com/EarlyUnderwaterwarfare.html |date=May 18, 2006 |publisher=California Center for Military History |access-date=March 2, 2016}}</ref>

The [[Howitzer]], a type of [[field artillery]], was developed in the 17th century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be reached by flat trajectory projectiles.

Organizational changes resulting in better training and intercommunication, made the concept [[combined arms]] possible, allowing the use of infantry, cavalry, and [[artillery]] in a coordinated way.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}

Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers. [[Bayonet]] is named after [[Bayonne]], France where it was first manufactured in the 16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand combat. General [[Jean Martinet]] introduced the bayonet to the French army. They were used heavily in the [[American Civil War]], and continued to be used in modern wars like the [[Invasion of Iraq]].<ref>Martin J. Brayley, ''Bayonets: An Illustrated History'' (2012)</ref>

[[Balloon (aircraft)|Balloons]] were first used in warfare at the end of the 18th century. It was first introduced in Paris of 1783; the first balloon traveled over 5&nbsp;miles (8&nbsp;km). Previously military [[Reconnaissance|scouts]] could only see from high points on the ground, or from the mast of a ship. Now they could be high in the sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much more difficult for troop movements to go unobserved.<ref>John Christopher, ''Balloons at War: Gasbags, Flying Bombs & Cold War Secrets'' (2004)</ref>

At the end of the 18th century, iron-cased [[artillery rocket]]s were successfully used militarily in India against the British by [[Tipu Sultan]] of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] during the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]]. Rockets were generally inaccurate at that time, though [[William Hale (British inventor)|William Hale]], in 1844, was able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer needed the [[rocket stick]], and had a higher accuracy.<ref>HM Iftekhar Jaim, and Jasmine Jaim, "The Decisive Nature of the Indian War Rocket in the Anglo-Mysore Wars of the Eighteenth Century." ''Arms & Armour'' 8.2 (2011): 131–138.</ref>

In the 1860s there were a series of advancements in [[rifle]]s. The first [[repeating rifle]] was designed in 1860 by a company bought out by [[Winchester Repeating Arms Company|Winchester]], which made new and improved versions. [[Springfield rifle]]s arrived in the mid-19th century also. [[Machine gun]]s arrived in the late 19th century. [[Automatic rifle]]s and [[light machine gun]]s first arrived at the beginning of the 20th century.<ref>Robert Held, ''The Age of Firearms: a pictorial history.'' (Harper, 1957).</ref>

In the later part of the 19th century, the self-propelled [[torpedo]] was developed. The [[HNoMS Rap (1873)|HNoMS Rap]] was the world's first torpedo boat.<ref>George Elliot Armstrong, ''Torpedoes and Torpedo-vessels'' (1896) [https://books.google.com/books?id=YDzWQbUP3sUC&dq=History+Torpedo+Armstrong&pg=PA1 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620210024/https://books.google.com/books?id=YDzWQbUP3sUC&dq=History+Torpedo+Armstrong&pg=PA1 |date=2023-06-20 }}.</ref>

=== Early guns and artillery ===
{{Further|History of the firearm}}
[[File:Siege orleans.jpg|thumb|The first Western image of a battle with [[cannon]]: the [[Siege of Orléans]] in 1429]]
The fire lance, the predecessor of the gun, was invented in China between the tenth and eleventh century. The barrel was originally designed out of bamboo shoots, later with metal. [[Joseph Needham Professor of Chinese History, Science, and Civilization|Joseph Needham]] notes "all the long preparations and tentative experiments were made in China, and everything came to Islam and the West fully fledged, whether it was the fire lance or the explosive bomb, the rocket or the metal-barrel handgun and bombard."<ref name=":14"/> By the 1320s Europe had guns, but scholars state that the exact time and method of migration from China remains a mystery. Evidence of firearms is found in Iran and Central Asia in the late fourteenth century. It was not until roughly 1442 that guns were referenced in India. Reliable references to guns in Russia begins around 1382.{{Citation needed|date=July 2019}}

An illustration of a "pot-shaped gun" found in the Holkham Hall Milemete manuscript dated to 1326 shows earliest advent of firearms in European history. The illustration shows an arrow, set in the pot-shaped gun pointed directly at a structure. Archaeological evidence of such "gun arrows" were discovered in [[Eltz Castle]], "dated by relation to a historical event (a feud with the Archbishop of Trier in 1331–36 leading to a siege), seem to confirm again that this was at least one of the types of guns like the Milemete used in these very early examples."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=A History of the Late Medieval Siege, 1200–1500.|last=Purton|first=Peter Fraser|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|year=2009|isbn=978-1843834489}}</ref>

According to Peter Fraser Purton, the best evidence of the earliest gun in Europe is the Loshult gun, dated to the fourteenth century. Discovered in 1861, the Loshult was made of bronze measured 11.8 inches in length. A replica of the Loshult was created, using similar gunpowder compounds with present-day materials, to determine the effectiveness of the weapon. The Gunpowder Research Group, who designed the recreation, found that at high elevations, the Loshult could fire as far as 1300 meters.<ref name=":2" /> Though inaccurate, missing targets further than 200 meters, the Loshult could fire a range of projectiles such as arrows and shot.<ref name=":14"/> It was determined that the Loshult could be effectively fired at ranks of soldiers and structures.

Written works from the Cabinet des Titres of the Imperial Library of Paris has found evidence of canons in France in 1338. The works illustrate canons being used on-board ships at the Rouen during that time. "...an iron Fire-arm, which was provided with forty-eight bolts, made of iron and freather; also one pound of saltpetre and half a pound of sulphur to make the powder propel arrows."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Ancient Cannon in Europe|last=Brackenbury|first=Henry|publisher=Woolwich: The Royal Artillery Institution|year=1865}}</ref>

Researchers have been unable to determine the sizes of these cannons and others, outside the artifacts recovered. Sir [[Henry Brackenbury]] was able to surmise the approximate size of these cannons by comparing receipts for both the firearms and the corresponding amounts of gunpowder purchased. The receipts show a transaction for "25 Livres for 5 canons." Brackenbury was able to deduce, when comparing the costs of the cannons and the gunpowder apportioned, that they each iron cannon weighed approximately 25 lbs, while the brass cannons weighed roughly 22 lbs.<ref name=":0" />

[[Philip the Bold]] (1363–1404) is credited{{By whom|date=July 2019}} with creating the most effective artillery power in Europe in the late fourteenth century, effectively creating the Burgundian estate. Philip's development of a large artillery army made the small country a reputable force against larger empires such as England and France.{{original research inline|date=January 2024}}<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A New Power in the Late Fourteenth-Century Low Countries: Philip the Bold's Planned Franco-Burgundian Invasion of England and Scottish Alliance, 1385–1386|journal=History|volume=101|issue=344|pages=3–19|last=Crombie|first=Laura|doi=10.1111/1468-229X.12144|year=2016|doi-access=free}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=January 2024}} Philip had achieved this by establishing a large scale artillery manufacturing economy in Burgundy.<ref name=":14"/> Philip used his new cache of artillery to help the French capture an English-held fortress of Odruik. The artillery used to take Odruik used cannonballs measuring to about 450 pounds.<ref name=":14"/>

Large artillery was a major contributing factor to the fall of Constantinople at the hands of [[Mehmed the Conqueror]] (1432–1481). Having resigned his position as ruler due to youth and inexperience in 1446, Mehmed moved to the Ottoman capital of Manisa.<ref>{{Cite book|title=World Monarchies and Dynasties|last=Middleton|first=John|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=978-0765680501}}</ref> After his uncle, [[Murad II]] died in 1451, Mehmed once again became Sultan. He turned his attention to claiming the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Mehmed, like Philip, started mass-producing cannons by enticing craftsmen to his cause with money and freedom. For 55 days, Constantinople was bombarded with artillery fire, throwing cannonballs as large as 800 lbs at its walls. On May 29, 1453, Constantinople fell into Ottoman control.<ref name=":14"/>

=== Early firearm tactics ===
[[File:Manif. di bruxelles su dis.di bernart von orley, IGMN144483, 1526-31.JPG|thumb|270px|The [[Battle of Pavia]] in 1525. [[Heavy cavalry]] and [[Landsknecht]] mercenaries armed with [[arquebus]]es.]]
As guns and artillery became more advanced and prevalent, so to did the tactics by which they were implemented. According to Historian Michael Roberts "...a military revolution began with the broad adoption of firearms and artillery by late sixteenth-century European armies."<ref name="Stavros 2013">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1080/10371397.2013.831733|title=Military Revolution in Early Modern Japan|journal=Japanese Studies|volume=33|issue=3|pages=243–261|date=October 2013|last1=Stavros|first1=Matthew|s2cid=144268167}}</ref> Infantry with firearms replaced cavalry. Empires adapted their strongholds to withstand artillery fire. Eventually drilling strategies and battlefield tactics were adapted for the evolution in firearms use.

In Japan, at the same time during the sixteenth-century, this military evolution was also taking hold. These changes included a universal adoption of firearms, tactical developments for effective use, logistical restructuring within the military itself, and "the emergence of centralized and political and institutional relationships indicative of the early modern order."<ref name="Stavros 2013" />

Tactically, beginning with [[Oda Nobunaga]], the technique known as "volleying" or countermarch drills were implemented.<ref name=":14"/> Volley fire is an organized implementation of firearms, where infantry are structured in ranks. The ranks will alternate between loading and firing positions, allowing more consistent rates of fire and preventing enemies from taking over a position while members reload.
[[File:Nagashino Teppo-Ashigaru.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Battle of Nagashino]] in 1575. Key to Oda success during the battle was the deployment of 10,000 [[Ashigaru]] arquebusiers.]]
Historical evidence shows that Oda Nobunaga implemented his volley technique successfully in 1575, twenty years before evidence of such a technique is shown in Europe. The first indications of the countermarch technique in Europe was by Lord William Louis of Nassau (1538–1574) in the mid-1590s.<ref name="Stavros 2013" /><ref name=":14"/>

Korea also seemed to be adapting the volley technique, earlier than even the Japanese. "Koreans seem to have employed some kind of volley principle with guns by 1447, when the Korean King Sejong the Great instructed his gunners to shoot their 'fire barrels' in squads of five, taking turns firing and loading."<ref name=":14"/>

This was on display during what [[Kenneth Swope]] called the First Great East Asian War, when Japan was trying to take control and subjugate Korea.<ref name=":02"/> [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] (1537–1598) made a failed invasion of Korea, which lasted six years, eventually pushed back by the Koreans with the aid of Ming China.<ref name=":14" /> Japan, using overwhelming firepower, had many early victories on the Korean peninsulas. Though the Koreans had similar manpower, "the curtain of arrows thrown up by defenders was wiped out by [Japanese] gunfire."<ref name="Stavros 2013"/> After the Japanese were finally pushed back in 1598, sweeping military reforms took place in Korea, largely based on updating and implementing the volley technique with firearms.
[[File:The Battle of Chaldiran, Qajar Iran, 19th century.jpg|thumb|The advanced [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] weaponry (cannons and muskets wielded by [[janissaries]]) was the deciding factor of the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].]]
It was [[Qi Jiguang]], a Ming Chinese General that provided the original treatise, disseminated to Koreans, that aided in this venture. In these manuals, Qi "...gave detailed instructions in the use of small group tactics, psychological warfare, and other 'modern' techniques."<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War|last=Swope|first=Kenneth M.|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0806185026}}</ref> Qi emphasized repetitive drilling, dividing men into smaller groups, separating the strong from weak. Qi's ethos was one of synthesizing smaller groups, trained in various tactical formations, into larger companies, battalions and armies. By doing this they could "operate as eyes, hands, and feet..." aiding to overall unit cohesion.<ref name=":02" />

===Modern technologies===
[[File:Yokosuka D4Y3 Suisei-Mitsubishi-aircraft-works-Japanese-plane-Zero-ca1945-GAG01.jpg|left|thumb|[[Yokosuka D4Y|Yokosuka D4Y3]] a Japanese [[Military aircraft|Aircraft]] used during WWII]]
At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were a surprise to their adversaries, leading to a need to learn from this, and alter how to combat them. [[Flame thrower]]s were first used in the First World War. The French were the first to introduce the [[Armored car (military)|armored car]] in 1902. Then in 1918, the British produced the first [[Armoured personnel carrier|armored troop carrier]]. Many early [[tank]]s were proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A<sub>7</sub>V tanks, as well as 170 captured tanks. The British and French both had several hundred each. The French tanks included the 13 ton [[Schneider CA1]], with a 75&nbsp;mm gun, and the British had the [[Mark I tank#Mark IV|Mark IV]] and [[Mark I tank#Mark V series|Mark V]] tanks.<ref>Patrick Wright, ''Tank: the progress of a monstrous war machine'' (Penguin, 2003).</ref>

On December 17, 1903, the [[Wright Brothers]] performed the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; it went 39 meters (120&nbsp;ft). In 1907, the first [[helicopter]] flew, but it wasn't practical for usage. [[World War I Aviation|Aviation]] became important in World War I, in which several [[Flying ace|aces]] gained fame. In 1911 an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time. Landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led to the development of an [[aircraft carrier]] with a decent unobstructed flight deck.<ref>Norman Polmar, ''Aircraft carriers: a graphic history of carrier aviation and its influence on world events'' (1969).</ref>

[[Chemical warfare]] exploded into the public consciousness in World War I but may have been used in earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used gas-filled shells at the [[Battle of Bolimov]] on January 3, 1915. These were not lethal, however. In April 1915, the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly lethal, and used it to moderate effect at the [[Second Battle of Ypres]]. Gas masks were invented in matter of weeks, and poison gas proved ineffective at winning battles. It was made illegal by all nations in the 1920s.<ref>Kim Coleman, ''A history of chemical warfare'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005).</ref>

World War II gave rise to even more technology. The worth of aircraft grew from mostly reconnaissance to strategic bombing and more. The worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in the battles between the United States and Japan like the [[Battle of Midway]]. [[Radar]] was independently invented by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] and [[Axis Powers|Axis powers]]. It used [[radio wave]]s to detect objects. [[Molotov cocktail]]s were invented by General Franco in the Spanish Civil War, directing the Nationalists to use them against Soviet tanks in the assault on Toledo. The [[atomic bomb]] was developed by the [[Manhattan Project]] and [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] in 1945, quickly and controversially ending World War II.<ref>Ryan Jenkins, ''World War 2: New Technologies'' (2014)</ref>

During the [[Cold War]], the main powers engaged in a [[Nuclear arms race]]<ref>Paul P. Craig and John A. Jungerman, ''The Nuclear Arms Race: Technology and Society'' (1990)</ref> which comprised the making of atomic bombs, hydrogen bombs, and more advanced nuclear bombs. In the [[space race]], both nations attempted to launch human beings into space, to the moon and send satellites. Other technological advances were centered on intelligence (like the [[spy satellite]]) and missiles ([[ballistic missile]]s, [[cruise missile]]s). The [[nuclear submarine]] was invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer needed to surface as often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into underwater missile platforms.<ref>Jeremy Black, ''The Cold War: A Military History'' (2015)</ref>

==Periods of military history==
===Prehistoric warfare===
{{Further|Prehistoric warfare}}
Prehistoric warfare refers to war that occurred between societies without [[recorded history]]. The [[Tollense valley battlefield]] is the oldest evidence of a large scale battle in Europe. More than 4,000 warriors fought in a battle on the site in the 13th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Curry|first1=Andrew|title=Slaughter at the bridge: Uncovering a colossal Bronze Age battle|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/slaughter-bridge-uncovering-colossal-bronze-age-battle|website=Science|date=24 March 2016}}</ref>

===Ancient warfare===
{{Further|Ancient warfare}}
[[File:Ur excavations (1900) (14767240352).jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Standard of Ur]] with depictions of war and peace, from the [[Sumer]]ian city-state of [[Ur]], c. 2600 BC]]
Much of what we know of [[ancient history]] is the history of militaries: their conquests, their movements, and their technological innovations. There are many reasons for this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control in the ancient world, could only be maintained through military force. Due to limited agricultural ability, there were relatively few areas that could support large communities, therefore fighting was common.

The [[Umma–Lagash war]] was one of the first wars in recorded history, fought between the [[Sumer]]ian city-states of [[Lagash]] and [[Umma]]. The border conflict over the fertile [[Gu-Edin|Guedena]] region lasted for several generations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Recently Deciphered 4,500-Year-Old Pillar Shows First Known Record of a Border Dispute |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/pillar-first-evidence-neighbors-behaving-badly-180970969/ |work=[[Smithsonian (magazine)|Smithsonian]] |date=December 7, 2018}}</ref>

[[Weapon]]s and [[armor]], designed to be sturdy, tended to last longer than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviving artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they are more likely to survive. Weapons and armor were also mass-produced to a scale that makes them quite plentiful throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in archaeological digs.

Such items were also considered signs of prosperity or virtue, and thus were likely to be placed in tombs and monuments to prominent warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of military conquests or victories.

Writing, when used by the common man, also tended to record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic such as the [[Homeric]] writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal writings. Indeed, the earliest stories center on warfare, as war was both a common and dramatic aspect of life; the witnessing of a major battle involving many thousands of soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art, but also in realistic histories, as well as being a central element in a fictional work.
[[File:Assyrian Relief Attack on Enemy Town from Kalhu (Nimrud) Central Palace reign of Tiglath-pileser III British Museum - 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Siege engine in [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]] relief of attack on an enemy town during the reign of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]], 743–720 BC, from his palace at [[Nimrud]]]]
Lastly, as [[nation states]] evolved and empires grew, the increased need for order and efficiency lead to an increase in the number of records and writings. Officials and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed records and accounts involving any and all things concerning a matter such as warfare that, in the words of [[Sun Tzu]], was "a matter of vital importance to the state". For all these reasons, military history comprises a large part of ancient history.

Notable militaries in the ancient world included the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]], [[Babylon]]ians, [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]], Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] (notably the [[Sparta]]ns and [[Macedon]]ians), [[Military of ancient Nubia|Kushites]], [[Military history of India|Indians]] (notably the [[Magadha]]s, [[Gangaridai]]s, [[Gandhara]]s and [[Cholas]]), Early Imperial [[History of China|Chinese]] (notably the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] and [[Han (Warring States)|Han]] dynasties), [[Xiongnu]] Confederation, Ancient [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and [[Carthage|Carthaginians]].

The [[fertile crescent]] of [[Mesopotamia]] was the center of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was conquered by the [[Sumer]]ians, [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadians]], [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Assyria]]ns and Persians. [[Iran]]ians were the first nation to introduce [[cavalry]] into their army.<ref name="Suren-Pahlav">Suren-Pahlav S., ''General Surena; The Hero of Carrhae''<!-- link blocked by spam filter: http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ashkanian/surena.htm ; accessed Jan 16, 2007 --></ref>

[[Egypt]] began growing as an ancient power, but eventually fell to the [[Libya]]ns, [[Nubia]]ns, Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] and [[Arab]]s.

The earliest recorded battle in [[History of India|India]] was the [[Battle of the Ten Kings]]. The [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and ''[[Ramayana]]'' are centered on conflicts and refer to military formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. [[Chanakya]]'s ''[[Arthashastra]]'' contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on [[espionage]] and [[war elephant]]s.
[[File:Greek-Persian duel.jpg|thumb|Greek [[hoplite]] (right) and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient [[kylix]], 5th century BC]]
[[Alexander the Great]] invaded Northwestern India and defeated [[King Porus]] in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes River]]. The same region was soon re conquered by [[Chandragupta Maurya]] after defeating the Macedonians and [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]]. He also went on to conquer the [[Nanda Dynasty|Nanda Empire]] and unify Northern India. Most of Southern Asia was unified under his grandson [[Ashoka|Ashoka the Great]] after the [[Kalinga War]], though the empire collapsed not long after his reign.

In China, the [[Shang dynasty]] and [[Zhou dynasty]] had risen and collapsed. This led to a [[Warring States period]], in which several states continued to fight with each other over territory. Philosopher-strategists such as [[Confucius]] and [[Sun Tzu]] wrote various manuscripts on ancient warfare (as well as international diplomacy).

The Warring States era philosopher [[Mozi]] ([[Micius]]) and his [[Mohist]] followers invented various siege weapons and siegecraft, including the Cloud Ladder (a four-wheeled, extendable ramp) to scale fortified walls during a siege of an enemy city. The warring states were first unified by [[Qin Shi Huang]] after a series of military conquests, creating the first empire in China.

His [[Qin dynasty|empire]] was succeeded by the [[Han dynasty]], which expanded into Central [[Asia]], Northern China/Manchuria, Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam. The Han came into conflict with settled people such as the [[Wiman Joseon]], and proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They also came into conflict with the [[Xiongnu]] ([[Huns]]), [[Yuezhi]], and other steppe civilizations.
[[File:Terracotta Army (6143564816).jpg|thumb|Lifelike soldier statues from the [[Terracotta Army]], discovered near modern [[Xi'an]], which was meant to guard the [[Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor]], 3rd century BC]]The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus west, securing the city-states along the silk route that continued into the [[Parthia]]n Empire. After the decline of central imperial authority, the Han dynasty collapsed into an era of civil war and continuous warfare during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period in the 3rd century AD.

The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid]] Persian Empire was founded by [[Cyrus the Great]] after conquering the [[Medes|Median Empire]], [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]], [[Lydia]] and [[Asia Minor]]. His successor [[Cambyses II of Persia|Cambyses]] went on to conquer the [[Egyptian Empire]], much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]]. After being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled by the Parthian and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] dynasties, which were the [[Roman Empire]]'s greatest rivals during the [[Roman-Persian Wars]].

In [[Greece]], several [[city-state]]s rose to power, including [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. The Greeks successfully stopped two Persian invasions, the first at the [[Battle of Marathon]], where the Persians were led by [[Darius I of Persia|Darius the Great]], and the second at the [[Battle of Salamis]], a naval battle where the Greek ships were deployed by orders of [[Themistocles]] and the Persians were under [[Xerxes I]], and the land engagement of the [[Battle of Plataea]].

The [[Peloponnesian War]] then erupted between the two Greek powers Athens and Sparta. Athens built a long wall to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to facilitate the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Athenians, including [[Pericles]]. After a disastrous campaign against [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], the Athenian navy was decisively defeated by [[Lysander]] at the [[Battle of Aegospotami]].

The [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]], underneath [[Philip II of Macedon]] and Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power. However, following Alexander's death at an early age, the empire quickly fell apart.

[[File:10 2023 - Palazzo Altemps, Roma, Lazio, 00186, Italia - Sarcofago Grande Ludovisi (Grande Ludovisi sarcophagus) - Arte Romana - Photo Paolo Villa FO232047 ombre gimp bis.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The 3rd-century [[Great Ludovisi sarcophagus]] depicts a battle between [[Military of ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Goths]].]]
Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rebellion against the [[Etruscans]]. During the three [[Punic Wars]], the Romans defeated the neighboring power of Carthage. The [[First Punic War]] centered on [[naval warfare]]. The [[Second Punic War]] started with [[Hannibal]]'s invasion of Italy by crossing the [[Alps]]. He famously won the encirclement at the [[Battle of Cannae]]. However, after [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]] invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the [[Battle of Zama]], ending the role of Carthage as a power.

After defeating Carthage the Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully campaigning in Greece, ([[Aemilius Paulus]] decisive victory over Macedonia at the [[Battle of Pydna]]), in the Middle East ([[Lucullus|Lucius Licinius Lucullus]], [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]]), in [[Gaul]] ([[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]]) and defeating several [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]] ([[Gaius Marius]], [[Germanicus]]). While Roman armies suffered several major losses, their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries, utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much larger "tribal" armies of their foes (see Battles of [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae|Aquae Sextiae]], [[Battle of Vercellae|Vercellae]], [[Battle of Tigranocerta|Tigranocerta]], [[Battle of Alesia|Alesia]]).

In 54 BC, the Roman triumvir [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] took the offensive against the [[Parthian Empire]] in the east. In a decisive battle at [[Battle of Carrhae|Carrhae]] Romans were defeated and the golden [[Aquila (Roman)|Aquilae]] (legionary battle standards) were taken as trophies to [[Ctesiphon]]. The battle was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Republic in its entire history.

While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome experienced numerous civil wars, notably the power struggles of Roman generals such as Marius and [[Sulla]] during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable for his role in the civil war against the other member of the Triumvirate (Pompey) and against the Roman Senate.

The successors of Caesar—Octavian and Mark Anthony—also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators Brutus, Cassius, etc.). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventually fought another civil war between themselves to determine the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian emerged victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge standing army of professional soldiers.

By the time of [[Marcus Aurelius]], the Romans had expanded to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to [[Mesopotamia]] in the east and controlled Northern Africa and Central Europe up to the [[Black Sea]]. However, Aurelius marked the end of the [[Nerva–Antonine dynasty#Five Good Emperors|Five Good Emperors]], and Rome quickly fell into decline.

The [[Hun]]s, [[Goths]], and other barbaric groups invaded Rome, which continued to suffer from [[inflation]] and other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of [[Diocletian]], [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], and [[Theodosius I]], western Rome collapsed and was eventually conquered in 476. The [[Byzantium|Byzantine empire]] continued to prosper, however.

===Medieval warfare===
{{Further|Medieval warfare}}
[[File:Battle of crecy froissart.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[Battle of Crécy]] (1346) between the English and French in the [[Hundred Years' War]].]]
When [[stirrups]] came into use some time during the [[Dark Ages (historiography)|Dark Ages]] militaries were forever changed. This invention coupled with technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], changing military tactics and the role of [[cavalry]] and [[artillery]].

Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world. In China around the 5th century armies moved from massed infantry to cavalry based forces, copying the [[steppe]] [[nomad]]s. The Middle East and North Africa used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than Europe.

In Japan, the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the 19th century. In Africa along the [[Sahel]] and [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] states like the [[Kingdom of Sennar]] and [[Fulani Empire]] employed Medieval tactics and weapons well after they had been supplanted in Europe.

In the [[Medieval]] period, [[feudalism]] was firmly implanted, and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords often owned [[castle]]s to protect their territory.

The Islamic [[Caliphate|Arab Empire]] began rapidly expanding throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, initially led by [[Rashidun Caliphate]], and later under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]]. While their attempts to invade Europe by way of the Balkans were [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|defeated]] by [[Byzantium]] and [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgaria]],<ref>[[s:Great Battles of Bulgaria]]</ref> the Arabs expanded to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] in the west and the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]] in the east. The [[Abassid]]s then took over the Arab Empire, though the Umayyads remained in control of [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]].

At the [[Battle of Tours]], the [[Franks]] under [[Charles Martel]] stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] Chinese army at the [[Battle of Talas]], but were later defeated by the [[Seljuk Turk]]s and the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to an end after the [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad]] in 1258.

In China, the [[Sui dynasty]] had risen and conquered the Chen dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam (northern Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the Han dynasty), fighting the troops of [[Champa]], who had cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic turmoil and a [[Goguryeo-Sui Wars|failed invasion of Korea]], the Sui collapsed and was followed by the Tang dynasty, who fought with various [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] groups, the [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] of [[Lhasa]], the [[Tanguts]], the [[Khitan people|Khitans]], and collapsed due to political fragmentation of powerful regional military governors (jiedushi). The innovative [[Song dynasty]] followed next, inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of [[Greek Fire]] and [[gunpowder]] (see section below) against enemies such as the [[Jurchens]].
[[File:Autor nieznany (malarz z kręgu Lukasa Cranacha Starszego), Bitwa pod Orszą.jpg|thumb|The victory of the [[Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars|Polish-Lithuanian]] forces over the Muscovites at the [[Battle of Orsha]] in 1514]]

The [[Mongol]]s under [[Genghis Khan]], [[Ögedei Khan]], [[Möngke Khan]], and [[Kublai Khan]] conquered most of Eurasia. They took over China, Persia, Turkestan, and Russia. After Kublai Khan took power and created the [[Yuan dynasty]], the divisions of the empire ceased to cooperate with each other, and the Mongol Empire was only nominally united.

In New Zealand, prior to European discovery, oral histories, legends and [[whakapapa]] include many stories of battles and wars. [[Māori people|Māori]] warriors were held in high esteem. One group of [[Polynesians]] migrated to the [[Chatham Islands]], where they developed the largely pacifist [[Moriori people|Moriori]] culture. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Māori in the 1830s.

They proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the survivors.<ref>[http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/4/en "Moriori – The impact of new arrivals"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090103172100/http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/Moriori/4/en |date=2009-01-03 }} ''Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand''</ref><ref>[http://www.newzealandatoz.com/index.php?pageid=607&PHPSESSID=1c2fab7979e45ccc7c3e7336e8636142 "Chatham Islands"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928164905/http://www.newzealandatoz.com/index.php?pageid=607&PHPSESSID=1c2fab7979e45ccc7c3e7336e8636142 |date=2007-09-28 }} ''New Zealand A to Z''</ref> [[Warrior]] culture also developed in the isolated [[Hawaiian Islands]]. During the 1780s and 1790s the chiefs and alii were constantly fighting for power. After a series of battles the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as [[Kamehameha I]].

===Gunpowder warfare===
{{Further|Gunpowder warfare}}
[[File:Sebastiaen Vrancx (1573-1647) - Veldslag (1640) - Sevilla Bellas Artes 22-03-2011 12-07-38.jpg|thumb|[[Eighty Years' War]], or [[Dutch Revolt]] against Spain, painting by [[Sebastiaen Vrancx]]]]
After [[gunpowder]] weapons were first developed in [[Song dynasty]] China (see also: [[Technology of the Song dynasty]]), the technology later spread west to the [[Ottoman Empire]], from where it spread to the [[Safavid Empire]] of Persia and the [[Mughal Empire]] of India. The [[arquebus]] was later adopted by European armies during the [[Italian Wars]] of the early 16th century.

This all brought an end to the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline of the feudal system—and the absorption of the medieval city-states into larger states—allowed the creation of professional standing armies to replace the [[Feudalism|feudal levies]] and mercenaries that had been the standard military component of the Middle Ages.

In Africa, [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], was the first African commander to use gunpowder on the continent in the [[Ethiopian–Adal War]], that lasted for fourteen years (1529–1543).

The period spanning between the 1648 [[Peace of Westphalia]] and the 1789 [[French Revolution]] is also known as ''[[Kabinettskriege]]'' (Princes' warfare) as wars were mainly carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by cabinets and limited in scope and in their aims. They also involved quickly shifting alliances, and mainly used mercenaries.

Over the course of the 18th–19th centuries all military arms and services underwent significant developments that included a more mobile [[field artillery]], the transition from use of battalion [[infantry drill]] in [[close order formation|close order]] to open order formations and the transfer of emphasis from the use of [[bayonets]] to the rifle that replaced the musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the universal [[dragoons]], or [[mounted infantry]].

===Military Revolution===
{{Main|Military Revolution}}
[[File:Assault on Coevorden in 1672 - De bestorming van Coevorden, 30 december 1672 (Pieter Wouwerman).jpg|thumb|Dutch forces storming [[Coevorden]] during the [[Franco-Dutch War]], 1672]]
The Military Revolution is a conceptual schema for explaining the transformation of European military strategy, tactics and technology in the early modern period.<ref>Michael Duffy, ''The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800'' (1980).</ref> The argument is that dramatic advances in technology, government finance, and public administration transformed and modernized European armies, tactics, and logistics. Since warfare was so central to the European state, the transformation had a major impact on modernizing government bureaucracies, taxation, and the national economy. The concept was introduced by [[Michael Roberts (historian)|Michael Roberts]] in the 1950s as he focused on [[Swedish Empire|Sweden 1560–1660]]. Roberts emphasized the introduction of muskets that could not be aimed at small targets, but could be very effective when fired in volleys by three ranks of infantry soldiers, with one firing while the other two ranks reloaded. All three ranks march forward to demolish the enemy. The infantry now had the firepower that had been reserved to the artillery, and had mobility that could rapidly advance in the battlefield, which the artillery lacked. The infantry thereby surpassed the artillery in tactical maneuvering on the battlefield. Roberts linked these advances with larger historical consequences, arguing that innovations in tactics, drill and doctrine by the Dutch and Swedes 1560–1660 led to a need for more and better trained troops and thus for permanent forces (standing armies). Armies grew much larger and more expensive. These changes in turn had major political consequences in the level of administrative support and the supply of money, men and provisions, producing new financial demands and the creation of new governmental institutions. "Thus, argued Roberts, the modern art of war made possible—and necessary—the creation of the modern state".<ref>Jeremy Black, "A Military Revolution? A 1660-1792 Perspective", in Clifford J. Rogers, ed., ''The Military Revolution Debate: Readings on the Military Transformation of Early Modern Europe'' (1995), pp. 95–115.</ref> In the 1990s the concept was modified and extended by [[Geoffrey Parker (historian)|Geoffrey Parker]], who argued that developments in fortification and siege warfare caused the revolution. The concept of a military revolution based upon technology has given way to models based more on a slow evolution in which technology plays a minor role to organization, command and control, logistics and in general non-material improvements. The revolutionary nature of these changes was only visible after a long evolution that handed Europe a predominant place in warfare, a place that the industrial revolution would confirm.<ref>Jacob, F. & Visoni-Alonzo, G., ''The Military Revolution in Early Modern Europe, a Revision,''  (2016)</ref><ref>Geoffrey Parker,  "The Military Revolution, 1560–1660 – A Myth?" ''Journal of Modern History'' 48#2 (1976) pp 195–214; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879826 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215065816/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1879826 |date=2018-12-15 }}</ref>

The concept of a military revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has received a mixed reception among historians. Noted military historians Michael Duffy and [[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]] have strongly criticised it as misleading, exaggerated and simplistic.<ref>Jeremy Black, "A Military Revolution? A 1660–1792 Perspective", pp. 95–115; and Michael Duffy, ''The Military Revolution and the State, 1500–1800'' (1980).</ref>

===Industrial warfare===
{{Further|Industrial warfare}}
[[File:Bataille Lizaine.jpg|thumb|[[Franco-Prussian War]]]]
As weapons—particularly small arms—became easier to use, countries began to abandon a complete reliance on professional soldiers in favor of [[conscription]]. Technological advances became increasingly important; while the armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial age saw encounters such as the [[Battle of Sadowa]], in which possession of a more advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome.<ref>John France,  ''Perilous Glory: The Rise of Western Military Power'' (2011) pp. 219–264 on 1815–1914.</ref> Conscription was employed in industrial warfare to increase the number of military personnel that were available for combat. Conscription was notably used by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] and the major parties during the two World Wars.

[[Total war]] was used in industrial warfare, the objective being to prevent the opposing nation to engage in war. Napoleon was the innovator.<ref>David A. Bell, ''The first total war: Napoleon's Europe and the birth of modern warfare'' (2008).</ref> [[William Tecumseh Sherman]]'s "[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]" and [[Philip Sheridan]]'s burning of the [[Shenandoah Valley]] during the [[American Civil War]] were examples.<ref>John Bennett Walters,  "General William T. Sherman and Total War." ''Journal of Southern history'' 14.4 (1948): 447–480.  [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2198124 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215174808/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2198124 |date=2018-12-15 }}</ref><ref>Mark E. Neely Jr, "Was the Civil War a Total War?." ''Civil War History'' 37.1 (1991): 5–28.</ref> On the largest scale the [[Strategic bombing during World War II|strategic bombing of enemy cities and industrial factories]] during [[World War II]] was total warfare.

===Modern warfare===
{{Further|Modern warfare}}

Since the 1940s, preparation for a major war has been based on technological arms races involving all sorts of new weapons systems, such as nuclear and biological, as well as computerized control systems, and the opening of new venues, such as seen in the [[Space race]] involving the United States, the Soviet Union, and more recently, China.<ref>Alex Roland, "Was the Nuclear Arms Race Deterministic?." ''Technology and Culture'' 51.2 (2010): 444–461. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alex_Roland/publication/236825790_Was_the_Nuclear_Arms_Race_Deterministic/links/5603d7ad08ae08d4f1718818/Was-the-Nuclear-Arms-Race-Deterministic.pdf online]</ref>

Modern war also saw the improvement of [[Tank|armored tank]] technology. While tanks were present in the [[World War I|First World War]], and the [[World War II|Second World War]], armored warfare technology came to a head with the start of the [[Cold War]]. Many of the technologies commonly seen on main battle tanks today, such as [[Composite armour|composite armor]], [[Tank gun|high caliber cannons]], and [[Tank#Active protection system|advanced targeting systems]], would be developed during this time.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

A distinctive feature since 1945 is the absence of wars between major powers—indeed the near absence of any traditional wars between established countries. The major exceptions were the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], the [[Iran–Iraq War]] 1980–1988, and the [[Gulf War]] of 1990–91. Instead actual fighting has largely been a matter of civil wars and insurgencies.<ref>Robert J. Bunker and Pamela Ligouri Bunker, "The modern state in epochal transition: The significance of irregular warfare, state deconstruction, and the rise of new warfighting entities beyond neo-medievalism." ''Small Wars & Insurgencies'' 27.2 (2016): 325–344.</ref> The most recent example of a war between two nation states would be the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].

==See also==
{{Portal|History}}
{{div col}}
* [[War Studies]]
* [[Ancient Greek warfare]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[List of military writers]]
* [[Maritime history]]
* [[Military globalization]]
* [[Naval history]]
* [[Roman warfare]]
* [[Society for Military History]]
* [[Military history of ancient Rome]]
* [[Military history of Africa]]
* [[Military history of Europe]]
* [[Military history of Oceania]]
* [[Military history of North America]]
* [[Military history of South America]]
* [[Military history by country]]
* ''[[Journal of Military History]]'', scholarly journal
* ''[[War in History]]'', scholarly journal
* ''[[War & Society]]'', scholarly journal
* [[History of physical training and fitness]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Archer, I. John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig, and Timothy H. E. Travers. ''World History of Warfare'' (2nd ed. 2008) 638 pp
* Black, Jeremy. ''Warfare in the Western World, 1775–1882'' (2001) 240 pp.
** Black, Jeremy. ''Warfare in the Western World, 1882–1975'' (2002), 256 pp.
* Brownstone, David, and Irene M. Franck. ''Timelines of War: A Chronology of Warfare from 100,000 BC to the Present'' (1994)
* Chambers, John Whiteclay, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History'' (2000) [https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00cham online]
* Cowley, Robert, and Geoffrey Parker, eds. ''The Reader's Companion to Military History'' (2001) coverage by scholars. [https://web.archive.org/web/20040807042512/http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_000105_entries.htm Complete text online free of 1996 edition]
* Dear, I. C. B., and M. R. D. Foot, eds. ''Oxford Companion to World War II'' (2005; 2nd ed. 2010) [https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00dear online]
* [[Robert A. Doughty|Doughty, Robert]], [[Ira D. Gruber]], [[Roy K. Flint]], and Mark Grimsley. ''Warfare In The Western World'' (2 vol 1996), comprehensive textbook; [https://archive.org/details/warfareinwestern00doug online vol 1 to 1871]
* Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. ''The Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 B.C. to the Present'' (1977), 1465 pp; comprehensive summary focused on wars and battles; [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060125448 online]
* Dyer, Gwynne. ''The Shortest History of War: From Hunter-Gatherers to Nuclear Superpowers{{snd}}A Retelling for Our Times'' (2022).
* Grossman, Mark. ''World military leaders: a biographical dictionary'' (Infobase Publishing, 2007).
* Holmes, Richard, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Military History'' (2001) 1071 pp; online at OUP
* Jones, Archer, ''The Art of War in the Western World'' (2001)
* Kohn, George C. ''Dictionary of Wars'' (3rd ed. 2006) 704 pp; very useful summary across world history
* Karsten, Peter. ed., ''Encyclopedia of War and American Society'' (3 vols., 2005).
* Keegan, John. ''The Face of Battle'' (1976) [https://www.amazon.com/Face-Battle-John-Keegan/dp/0880290838/  excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804142624/https://www.amazon.com/Face-Battle-John-Keegan/dp/0880290838 |date=2018-08-04 }}
* Keegan, John. ''The Price of Admiralty: The Evolution of Naval Warfare'' (1989)
* [[Paul Lacroix|Lacroix, Paul]]. ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73559  Military and religious life in the Middle Ages and at the period of the Renaissance]''  (London: Bickers & Son, 1870)
* Lamphear, John, ed. ''African Military History'' (Routledge, 2007).
* Lawrence, D. R. (2009). ''The complete soldier: military books and military culture in early Stuart England, 1603-1645''. Brill.
* Lee, Wayne E. ''Waging War: Conflict, Culture, and Innovation in World History'' (2015) [https://www.amazon.com/Waging-War-Conflict-Culture-Innovation/dp/0199797455/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230109173137/https://www.amazon.com/Waging-War-Conflict-Culture-Innovation/dp/0199797455 |date=2023-01-09 }}
* Lynn, John A. ''Battle: A Cultural History of Combat and Culture'' (2003).
* Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich, eds. ''The Routledge History of Global War and Society'' (Routledge, 2018).
* Nolan, Cathal J. ''The Allure of Battle: A History of How Wars Have Been Won and Lost'' (2017)
* Nolan, Cathal J. ''The Age of Wars of Religion, 1000–1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization'' (2 vol 2006)
* Parkinson, Roger. ''Encyclopedia of modern war'' (Routledge, 2021); since 1793.
* Roy, Kaushik. ''A Global History of Pre-Modern Warfare: Before the Rise of the West, 10,000 BCE–1500 CE.'' (Routledge, 2021).
*De Salazar, Gonzalo, "War, Peace and Civilization" [Guerra, paz y civilización], (Madrid: MAEC, 2016). 
*De Salazar, Gonzalo, "Crime and Armed Conflict" [Crimen y conflicto armado], (Madrid: MAEC, 2018).
* Townshend, Charles, ed. ''The Oxford History of Modern War'' (2nd ed. 2005)
* Trevor, N et al. ''Encyclopedia of military biography'' (Bloomsbury 2020).
* Tucker, Spencer C., ed.''Weapons and Warfare: From Ancient and Medieval Times to the 21st Century'' (2 vol, ABC-CLIO, 2020).
* Tucker, Spencer C., ed. ''Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection'' (4 vol, ABC-CLIO, 2019).
* Tucker, Spencer. ''Encyclopedia of American Military History'' (2019).

===Historiography and memory===
* Barnett, Correlli, Shelford Bidwell, Brian Bond, and John Terraine. ''Old Battles and New Defences: Can We Learn from Military History?'' (1986). [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15086871# online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091123175804/https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=15086871 |date=2009-11-23 }}
* Beaumont, Joan. "Australian military historiography" ''War & Society'' 42#1 (2023) pp.&nbsp;99–121 {{doi|10.1080/07292473.2023.2150485}}
* Black, Jeremy. "Determinisms and Other Issues", ''[[Journal of Military History]]'', 68 (Oct. 2004), 1217–1232. in [[Project MUSE]]
* Black, Jeremy. ''Rethinking Military History'' (2004) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108014389 online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208041838/https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108014389 |date=2009-12-08 }}
* Bucholz, Arden. "Hans Delbruck and Modern Military History." ''The Historian'' vol 55#3 (1993) pp.&nbsp;517+.
* Chambers II, John Whiteclay. "The New Military History: Myth and Reality", ''[[Journal of Military History]]'', 55 (July 1991), 395–406
* Chambers, John Whiteclay. "‘All Quiet on the Western Front’ (1930): the antiwar film and the image of the First World War." ''Historical journal of film, radio and television'' 14.4 (1994): 377–411.
* Charters, David A., Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson. eds. ''Military History and the Military Profession'', (1992)
* [[Robert M. Citino|Citino, Robert M.]] "Military Histories Old and New: A Reintroduction", ''The American Historical Review'' Vol. 112, no. 4 (October 2007), pp.&nbsp;1070–1090 [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?AHRahr.112.4.1070PDF online version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827191044/http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?AHRahr.112.4.1070PDF |date=2021-08-27 }}
* Gill, John H. "From Great Captains to Common Grognards: research opportunities in Napoleonic military history." ''War & Society'' 41.1 (2022): 6–84. {{doi|10.1080/07292473.2022.2021752}}
* Grimsley, Mark. "Why Military History Sucks", Nov. 1996, War Historian.org, online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20170915180322/http://www.warhistorian.org/why_military_history_sucks.php Why Military History Sucks]
* Higham, John, ed. ''A Guide to the Sources of British Military History''  (2015) 654 pages [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOGoCgAAQBAJ&q=George+Clark++Later+Stuarts+1660-1714 excerpt]
* Hughes, Matthew, and W. Philpott, eds. ''Palgrave Advances in Modern Military History'' (2006) [https://www.amazon.com/Palgrave-Advances-Modern-Military-History/dp/140391768X/  excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220116234914/https://www.amazon.com/Palgrave-Advances-Modern-Military-History/dp/140391768X |date=2022-01-16 }}
* Karsten, Peter. "The 'New' American Military History: A Map of the Territory, Explored and Unexplored", ''American Quarterly'', 36 #3, (1984), 389–418 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1988340 in JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426060739/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1988340 |date=2019-04-26 }}
* Kimball, Jeffrey. "The Influence of Ideology on Interpretive Disagreement: A Report on a Survey of Diplomatic, Military and Peace Historians on the Causes of 20th Century U. S. Wars", ''History Teacher'' 17#3 (1984) pp.&nbsp;355–384 {{doi|10.2307/493146}}  [https://www.jstor.org/stable/493146 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110044957/https://www.jstor.org/stable/493146 |date=2021-11-10 }}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
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{{commons category|Military history}}
* [http://www.brill.nl/ibmh ''International Bibliography of Military History''] of the International Commission of Military History – from Brill.nl
* [https://networks.h-net.org/h-war H-WAR, daily discussion group for military historians] – from Michigan State University Department of History, H-Net Humanities & Social Sciences Online
* [http://americanhistoryprojects.com/downloads/mil-2012.html Web Sources for Military History] – from AmericanHistoryProjects.com
* [http://www.historyofwar.org/ Military History Encyclopedia on the Web]
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