View source for Neue Musik

{{short description|Music school}}
{{History of Western art music}}
'''Neue Musik''' (English ''new music'', French ''nouvelle musique'') is the collective term for a wealth of different currents in composed [[classical music|Western art music]] from around 1910 to the present. Its focus is on compositions of 20th century music. It is characterised in particular by – sometimes radical – expansions of tonal, harmonic, melodic and rhythmic means and forms. It is also characterised by the search for new sounds, new forms or new combinations of old styles, which is partly a continuation of existing traditions, partly a deliberate break with tradition and appears either as ''progress'' or as ''renewal'' (neo- or post-styles).

Roughly speaking, Neue Musik can be divided into the period from around 1910 to the [[World War II|Second World War]] – often referred to as "[[modernism (music)|modernism]]" – and the reorientation after the Second World War, which is perceived as "radical" – usually apostrophised as ''avant-garde'' – up to the present. The latter period is sometimes subdivided into the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, whereby the following decades have not yet been further differentiated (the summary term "postmodernism" has not become established).

In order to describe contemporary music in a narrower sense, the term ''Zeitgenössische Musik'' (English ''contemporary music'', French ''musique contemporaine'') is used without referring to a fixed periodisation. The term "Neue Musik" was coined by the music journalist [[Paul Bekker]] in 1919.

Representatives of Neue Musik are sometimes called '''neutoners'''.<ref>[[Dorothea Kolland]]: ''Die Jugendmusikbewegung. "Gemeinschaftsmusik", Theorie und Praxis.'' Metzler, Stuttgart 1979, {{p.|231}}, Anmerkung 160: "Das Wort ‚Neutöner‘ ist möglicherweise übernommen von Möller van der Bruck (''sic!'', richtig: [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck|Moeller van den Bruck]]), der 1899 ein Buch mit dem Titel ‚Neutöner‘ veröffentlichte, er bezog diesen Titel jedoch auf Literaten. In der Nachkriegsliteratur charakterisiert er, aus konservativer Sicht abwertend, in Wolfgang Koeppens Roman ''Der Tod in Rom'' (1954) den Zwölfton-Komponisten Siegfried Pfaffrath“.</ref>

== Compositional means and styles ==
The most important step in the reorientation of musical language was taken in the field of [[harmony]], namely the gradual abandonment of [[tonality]] – towards [[atonality|free atonality]] and finally towards [[twelve-tone technique]]. Towards the end of the 19th century, the tendency to use increasingly complex chord formations led to harmonic areas that could no longer be clearly explained by the underlying major-minor tonality – a process that had already begun with [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] and [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]]. From this, [[Arnold Schönberg]] and his students [[Alban Berg]] and [[Anton Webern]] drew the most systematic consequence, which culminated in the formulation (1924) of the method of "composition with twelve tones related only to one another" (dodecaphony). These [[atonality|atonal]] rules of composition provide composers with a toolkit that helps to avoid the principles of tonality. The designation as "[[Second Viennese School]]" in analogy to the "[[First Viennese School]]" ([[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]) already betrays the special position that this group of composers has as a mediating authority.

The principle of using all twelve tones of the [[equal temperament|tempered]] scale equally, without favouring individual tones, seems to have occupied various composers in the first two decades of the 20th century, who simultaneously, but independently of [[Arnold Schönberg|Schönberg]], advanced to similarly bold results. Among these experimenters, in whose works twelve-tone and serial approaches can be discerned, is first of all [[Josef Matthias Hauer]], who publicly argued with Schönberg about the "copyright" to twelve-tone music. Also to be mentioned is [[Alexander Scriabin]], whose atonal [[mystic chord|sound-centre technique]], based on [[quartal harmony|quartal layering]], subsequently paved the way for remarkable experiments by a whole generation of young Russian composers. The significance of this generation of composers for New Music, which emerged in the climate of the revolutions of 1905 and 1917, could only penetrate into consciousness in the second half of the century, as they were already systematically eliminated by the Stalinist dictatorship in the late 1920s. Here, [[Nikolai Roslavets]], [[Arthur Lourié]], [[Alexander Mossolov]] and [[Ivan Wyschnegradsky]] should be mentioned as representatives.

A major shortcoming of the abandonment of major-minor tonality, however, was the extensive loss of the form-forming forces of this harmonic system. Composers countered this deficiency in very different ways. In order to avoid the classical-romantic musical forms, they now chose for the new music partly free ([[Rhapsody (music)|rhapsody]], [[Fantasia (music)|fantasy]]), or neutral (concert, orchestral piece) designations, or self-chosen, sometimes extremely short, [[Aphorism|aphoristic]] forms (Webern, Schönberg). Others adhered to traditional forms, even though their works themselves took this concept ad absurdum, or filled the traditional ideas of form with new content (Scriabin's single-movement [[piano sonata]]s, Schoenberg's [[sonata form]]s with the abandonment of the tonality that founded them in the first place). Even the fundamental idea of a continuous, purposeful processing of musical thoughts within a work loses its primacy, parallel to the loss of the 19th century's belief in progress. New possibilities of shaping form, beyond parameters of music, which had previously been treated rather stepmotherly, such as [[timbre]], [[rhythm]], [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]], systematic resp. Free montage techniques in [[Igor Stravinsky]] or [[Charles Ives]], the rejection of the time directionality of music, as well as an increasing individualism claim their place.

A musical source whose potential was also used for experimentation is [[folklore]]. While previous generations of composers had repeatedly chosen exotic subjects in order to legitimise structures that deviated from the prevailing rules of composition, it was in the work of [[Claude Debussy]] that a stylistic and structural adaptation of [[Gamelan|javanese gamelan music]], which he had become acquainted with in 1889 at the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|Paris 1889 World's Fair]], can be observed for the first time. In this context, the work of [[Béla Bartók]], who had already explored most of the fundamental characteristics of his new style by means of a systematic study of Balkan folklore in 1908, is to be regarded as exemplary. In the course of this development, Bartók arrived at the treatment of the "piano as a percussion instrument" with his ''[[Allegro barbaro (Bartók)|Allegro barbaro]]'' (1911), which subsequently had a decisive influence on composers' treatment of this instrument. The rhythmic complexities peculiar to Slavic folklore were also appropriated by Igor Stravinsky in his early ballet compositions written for [[Sergei Diaghilev]]'s ''[[Ballets Russes]]''. Significantly, Stravinsky uses a given "barbaric-pagan" stage plot for his most revolutionary experiment in this respect (''[[The Rite of Spring]]'' 1913).

It was also Stravinsky who, in the further course of the 1910s, developed his compositional style in a direction that became exemplary for [[Neoclassicism (music)|Neoclassicism]]. In France, various young composers appeared on the scene who devoted themselves to a similar emphatically anti-romantic aesthetic. The [[Groupe des Six]] was formed around [[Erik Satie]], whose leading theoretician was [[Jean Cocteau]]. In Germany, [[Paul Hindemith]] was the most prominent representative of this movement. The proposal to use the canon of musical forms, such as the Baroque, to renew the musical language had already been put forward by [[Ferruccio Busoni]] in his ''Draft of a New Aesthetic of Musical Art''. In the spring of 1920, Busoni formulated this idea again in an essay entitled ''Young Classicism''.

Furthermore, the radical experiments devoted to the possibilities of [[microtonal music]] are exceptional. These include [[Alois Hába]], who, encouraged by [[Ferruccio Busoni|Busoni]], found his preconditions in Bohemian-Moravian musicianship, and on the other hand [[Ivan Wyschnegradsky]], whose microtonality is to be understood as a consistent further development of the sound-centre technique of [[Alexander Scriabin]]. In the wake of the Italian [[Futurism]] around [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]] and [[Francesco Balilla Pratella]], which was based in the visual arts, [[Luigi Russolo]] in his manifesto ''The Art of Noises'' (1913, 1916) designed a style called [[Futurism#Music|Bruitism]], which made use of newly constructed sound generators, the so-called [[Intonarumori]].<ref>Luigi Russolo: ''Die Geräuschkunst'' (1916, 1999) </ref>

The spectrum of musical expression is extended by another interesting experiment that also enters the realm of the musical application of sounds, namely the [[tone cluster]] by [[Henry Cowell]]. Some of the early piano pieces by [[Leo Ornstein]] and [[George Antheil]] also tend towards quite comparable tone clusters. With [[Edgar Varèse]] and [[Charles Ives]], two composers should be mentioned whose works, which are exceptional in every respect, cannot be attributed to any larger movement and whose significance was only fully recognised in the second half of the century.

The increasing industrialisation, which slowly began to take hold of all areas of life, is reflected in an enthusiasm for technology and (compositional) machine aesthetics, which was initially carried by the Futurist movement. Thus, the various technical innovations, such as the invention of the [[vacuum tube]], the development of [[radio]] technology, the [[sound film]] and [[Magnetic tape|tape]] technology, moved into the musical field of vision. These innovations also favoured the development of new electric playing instruments, which is also significant with regard to the original compositions created for them. Lew Termen's [[Theremin]], Friedrich Trautwein's [[trautonium]] and the [[Ondes Martenot]] of the Frenchman [[Maurice Martenot]] should be highlighted here. The partly enthusiastic hope for progress that was attached to the musically useful application of these early experiments was, however, only partially fulfilled. Nevertheless, the new instruments and technical developments possessed a musically inspiring potential that, in the case of some composers, was reflected in extraordinarily visionary conceptions that could only actually be technically realised decades later. The first compositional explorations of the musical possibilities of [[pianola]] also belong in this context. The medial dissemination of music by means of records and radio also made possible the enormously accelerated exchange or reception of musical developments that had been almost unknown until then, as can be seen from the rapid popularisation and reception of [[jazz]]. In general, it can be said that the period from around 1920 onwards was one of general "departure for new shores" – with many very different approaches. Essentially, this pluralism of styles has been preserved until today or, after a short period of mutual polemics between [[Serialism]] and adherents of traditional compositional styles (from about the mid-1950s onwards), has ceased again.

== Historical preconditions ==
In the 20th century, a line of development of musical progress continued; every composer still known today has contributed something to it. This old longing for progress and [[modernity]] – through conscious separation from tradition and convention – can, however, take on a fetish-like character in Western society, which is shaped by science and technology. The appearance of the "new" is always accompanied by a feeling of uncertainty and scepticism. At the beginning of the 20th century, the use of music and the discussion of its meaning and purpose was still reserved for an infinitesimally small, but all the more knowledgeable part of society. This relationship – the small elite group of privileged people here and the large uninvolved masses there – has only changed outwardly through the increasing dissemination of music through the media. Today, music is accessible to everyone, but as far as understanding "Neue Musik" is concerned, there is a lack of education in many cases, including that of the ear. The changed relationship between man and music has made aesthetic questions about the nature and purpose of music a public debate.

In the history of music, transitional phases (epoch boundaries) arose in which the "old" and the "new" appeared simultaneously. The traditional period or epoch was still cultivated, but parallel to this a "Neue musik" was introduced which subsequently replaced it. These transitions were always understood by contemporaries as phases of renewal and were described accordingly. The [[Ars nova (music)|Ars Nova]] of the 14th century, for example, also has "new" in its name, and [[Renaissance]] also characterises a consciously chosen new beginning. The transitional phases are usually characterised by an increase in stylistic means, in which these – in the sense of [[mannerism]] – are exaggerated to the point of absurdity. The stylistic change to the "new" music then takes place, for example, through the removal of one of the traditional stylistic means, on the basis of which a compositional-aesthetic progress can then be systematically striven for and realised, or on the gradual preference for alternatives introduced in parallel.

In this sense, the classical [[Romantic music]] of the 19th century can be understood as an intensification of Viennese classicism. The increase in means is most noticeable here in the quantitative aspect – the length and instrumentation of Romantic orchestral compositions increased drastically. In addition, the composers' increased need for expression and extra-musical (poetic) content came more into focus. The attempts to create musical national styles must also be seen as a reaction to the various revolutionary social events of the century. Furthermore, the economic conditions for musicians, based on patronage and publishing, changed. Social and political circumstances affected the composition of the audience and the organisation of concert life. In addition, there was a strong individualisation (personal style) of the Romantic musical language(s).

== Historical overview ==
The following overview provides only a keyword-like orientation about the corresponding periods, outstanding composers, rough style characteristics and masterpieces. Corresponding in-depth information is then reserved for the main articles.
* Any periodisation is a shortening. In many cases, the sometimes seemingly contradictory styles not only took place simultaneously, but many composers also composed in several styles – sometimes even in one and the same work.
* Even if one composer appears to be outstanding for a style or period, there has always been a multitude of composers who have also written exemplary works in a sometimes very independent manner. The following applies: every successful work deserves its own consideration and classification – regardless of the framework in which it is usually placed for stylistic reasons.
* Basically, the dictum of [[Rudolf Stephan]] applies to the classification of works into styles: "If, however, stylistic criteria [...] are presupposed, then [...] such [works] by numerous other, mostly younger composers [...] can also be counted [...] But in the case of works [...] (which can certainly be named in this context), boundaries then become perceptible which perhaps cannot be fixed exactly, but which are nevertheless (to speak with Maurice Merleau-Ponty) quickly noticed as having already been crossed. "<ref>Rudolf Stephan: ''Expressionism'', in ''[[Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart]]'' 2, Sachteil, vol. 3, column 244.</ref> A fixed stylistic or epochal scheme does not exist and is in principle impossible. All attributions of similarities or differences are interpretations that require precise explanation. The fact that works are classified partly according to stylistic terms (for example "expressionism") and partly according to compositional criteria (e.g. "atonality") inevitably leads to multiple overlaps.

=== The turn from the 19th to the 20th century ===
The traditional compositional means of the classical period were only able to cope with these increasing tendencies to a certain extent. Towards the end of the 19th century, the musical development began to take shape in which [[Paul Bekker]] then retrospectively recognised "New Music"<ref>Paul Bekker: Lecture ''[[s:New Music|New Music]]'' as full text at [[Wikisource]]</ref> (as a term it was only later written with a capital&nbsp; "N"). His attention had initially been particularly focused on [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Franz Schreker]], [[Ferruccio Busoni]] and [[Arnold Schönberg]]. Overall, the turn of the century had come to be understood as [[fin de siècle]]. In any case, it was under the auspices of [[modernity]], as the radicalisation of which the "new music" can be regarded and whose manifold consequences influenced the entire 20th century. The qualitative difference of this epochal transition from the earlier ones is essentially that now some composers saw their historical mission in developing the "new" out of tradition and consistently searching for new means and ways to replace the outdated [[Romantic music|classical-romantic]] aesthetics would be able to completely replace.

The deliberate break with tradition is the most striking feature of this transitional phase. The will to renew gradually encompasses all stylistic means ([[harmony]], [[melody]], [[rhythm]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], form, [[Instrumentation (music)|orchestration]], etc.). The new musical styles of the turn of the century, however, still clearly stand in the context of 19th century tradition. Early [[Expressionism]] inherits Romanticism and increases its (psychologised) expressive will, [[Impressionism]] refines timbres, etc. But soon those parameters were also taken into account and used for musical experiments that had previously had only marginal importance, such as rhythm, or – as a significant novelty&nbsp;- the inclusion of sounds as musically formable material. The progressive mechanisation of urban living conditions found expression in [[Futurism]]. Another significant aspect is the equal coexistence of very different procedures in dealing with and in relation to tradition. In any case, "Neue musik" cannot be understood as a superordinate style, but can only be identified on the basis of individual composers or even individual works in the various styles. The 20th century thus appears as a century of polystylistics.

At first, the "new" was neither accepted without comment nor welcomed by the majority of the audience. The premiere of particularly advanced pieces regularly led to the most violent reactions on the part of the audience, which in their drastic nature seem rather alienating today. The vivid descriptions of various legendary scandalous performances (e.g. Richard Strauss' ''[[Salome (opera)|Salome]]'' 1905, Stravinsky's ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'' 1913) with scuffles, key whistles, police intervention etc., as well as the journalistic response with blatant polemics and crude defamations testify to the difficult position that the "neutöners" had from the beginning. After all, "new music" still seems to have met with a surprisingly high level of public interest at this early stage. However, with increasing acceptance by the public, a certain ("scandalous") expectation also set in. This in turn resulted in a discreet compulsion for originality, modernity and novelty, which entailed the danger of fashionable flattening and routine repetition.

The composers of New Music did not make it easy for themselves, nor for their listeners and performers. Regardless of the nature of their musical experiments, they seem to have quickly found that audiences were helpless and uncomprehending in the face of their sometimes very demanding creations. This was all the more disappointing for many, since it was the very same audience that unanimously applauded the masters of the classical-romantic tradition, whose legitimate heirs they saw themselves as. As a result, the need to explain the new was recognised. Many composers therefore endeavoured to provide the theoretical and aesthetic underpinnings needed to understand their works. In particular, musicological and music-theoretical writings, such as Schönberg's or [[Ferruccio Busoni|Busonis]] visionary ''Entwurf einer neuen Ästhetik der Tonkunst'' (1906) are of great influence on the development of New Music. Also noteworthy in this context is the almanac ''[[Der Blaue Reiter]]'' (1912) edited by [[Wassily Kandinsky|Kandinsky]] and [[Franz Marc|Marc]], which contains, among other things, an essay on ''Free Music'' by the Russian Futurist [[Nikolai Kulbin]]. This willingness to engage intellectually and technically with the unsolved problems of tradition, as well as the sometimes unbending attitude in the pursuit of set compositional goals and experimental arrangements, are further characteristic features of Neue Musik.

The stylistic pluralism that emerged under these conditions continues into the present. In this respect, the term "Neue Musik" is suitable neither as a designation for an epoch nor as a style. Rather, it has a qualitative connotation that is related to the degree of originality (in the sense of novel or unheard-of) of the production method as well as the final result. Expressionism and [[Impressionism]], but also styles of visual art such as [[Futurism]] and [[Dadaism]] provide aesthetic foundations on which new music can be created. Perhaps the composers and works that have been able to establish themselves as "classics of modernism" in the concert hall in the course of the last century and whose innovations have found their way into the canon of compositional techniques can best be understood under the heading of "new music": Thus, in addition to [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and [[Anton Webern]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Philipp Jarnach|Phillipp Jarnach]], [[Béla Bartók]] and [[Paul Hindemith]]. The depiction and assessment of historical development on the basis of an assumed "rivalry" between Schoenberg and Stravinsky is a construct that can be traced back to [[Theodor W. Adorno]]. The Second World War represents a clear caesura. Many of the early stylistic, formal and aesthetic experiments of New Music then pass into the canon of compositional tools taught from mid-century onwards and passed on to a younger generation of composers of (again) New Music. In this respect, the technical innovations of [[sound recording]] and [[radio technology]] are also causally linked to New Music. First of all, they contributed significantly to the [[popularisation]] of music and also brought about a change in audience structure. Furthermore, they provided – for the first time in the history of music – an insight into the history of the interpretation of old and new music. They ultimately made possible the (technically reproduced) presence of all music. Moreover, this technique itself is a novelty, whose musical potential was systematically explored from the beginning and used by composers in corresponding compositional experiments.

=== Moderne (1900–1933) ===
==== Impressionism or: Debussy – Ravel – Dukas ====
{{main article|Impressionism in music}}

''Impressionism'' is the transfer of the term from the visual arts to a music from about 1890 to the First World War in which tonal "atmosphere" dominates and colourful intrinsic value is emphasised. It differs from the late Romanticism that took place at the same time, with its heavy overloading, by Mediterranean lightness and agility (which does not exclude spooky or shadowy moods) and by avoiding complex counterpoint and excessive chromaticism in favour of sensitive tone colouring, especially in orchestral instrumentation. The centre of this movement is France, the main representatives being [[Claude Debussy]], [[Maurice Ravel]] (who, however, also composed many works that cannot be described as impressionistic) and [[Paul Dukas]].

The moment of colour, freedom of form and a penchant for [[exoticism#music|exoticism]] are what musical works have in common with those of painting. Through the Paris [[Exposition Universelle (1889)|World's Fair of 1889]], Claude Debussy learned the sound of Javanese [[gamelan]] ensembles, which strongly influenced him, as did the [[chinoiserie]] of his time. In addition to the use of pentatonics (for example in ''Préludes I, Les collines d'Anacapri'') and whole-tone scales (for example in ''Préludes I, Voiles''), Debussy made use of the [[salon music]] of the time. (for example, ''Préludes I, Minstrels'') and harmonies borrowed from early [[jazz]] music (as in ''[[Children's Corner]]'' and ''[[Golliwogg's Cakewalk]]''). Like Ravel, Debussy loved the colour of Spanish dance music.

The fact that some of Debussy's works, which satisfy the characteristics of Impressionism, can also be attributed to [[Art Nouveau]], [[Jugendstil]] or Symbolism for good reasons only shows that the pictorial/literary parallels do bear some common stylistic features, but that no clear stylistic attribution can be derived from them.

The characteristics of impressionist music are:
* Melodic: coloured by pentatonic, church keys, whole tone scales and exotic scales; their core form is closely related to the chordal; often rambling, meandering, without a clear internal structure.
* Harmonics: dissolution of the cadence as a structure-forming feature; concealment of tonality; transition to bitonality and polytonality. Change in attitude to dissonance: no more compulsion to resolve dissonant chords. Preference for altered chords; layering of chords (dominant and tonic at the same time) in thirds up to the undecimal; layering of fourths and fifths.
* Rhythm: tendency to veil bars and even to abolish bar patterns; metre becomes unimportant, accents are set freely; frequent bar changes, frequent syncopations.
* Instrumentation: differentiation of colour nuances; search for new sound effects with a preference for blending sounds; shimmering, iridescent, blurring sound surfaces with rich inner movement. Pointillism (setting of sound spots). Preference for harp. Differentiated pedal effects in piano music. In many cases, [[Arnold Schönberg]]'s idea of a timbre melody is already realised.
* Form: Loosening up and abandoning traditional forms; no rigid formal schemes. Often repetition of a phrase two or more times.

The works that have become famous are:
* Debussy: ''[[Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]'' for orchestra (1892–94)
* Debussy: ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'', lyric drama in five acts and twelve pictures with orchestra after a text by [[Maurice Maeterlinck]] (1893–1902)
* Dukas: ''L'Apprenti sorcier'' ([[The Sorcerer's Apprentice (Dukas)|The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]) for orchestra (1897)
* Ravel: ''[[Pavane pour une infante défunte]]'' (for piano 1899; orchestral version 1910)
* Ravel: ''[[Jeux d'eau (Ravel)|Jeux d'eau]]'' for piano (1901)
* Debussy: ''Pour le piano'' (1901–02)
* Debussy: ''[[La Mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]'' for orchestra (1903–05)
* Ravel: ''Daphnis et Chloé'', ballet music for orchestra (1909–1912)
* Debussy: ''[[Préludes (Debussy)|Préludes – Livre I]]'' (1909–10) and ''[[Préludes (Debussy)|Préludes – Livre II]]'' for piano (1910–12)

==== Vienna School or Schönberg – Webern – Berg ====
{{main article|Second Viennese School}}

The so-called ''Viennese School'', considered as such since 1904 and more rarely called the ''Second'' or ''New Viennese School'' or ''Viennese Atonal School'', refers to the circle of Viennese composers with [[Arnold Schönberg]] and his pupils [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]] as its centre. Due to Schönberg's strong appeal as a teacher, who attracted students from many countries, and due to his teaching activities in changing cities, the term transferred from the designation of a 'school' to the style that this school produced. The term is narrowly applied mostly to compositions worked in twelve-tone technique.

The composers of the ''Viennese School'' were, although not exclusively, stylistically influential for the ''Late Romanticism'' with the main work ''Verklärte Nacht Op. 4'', a string sextet by Schönberg from 1899. Alongside this is Webern's ''Piano Quintet'' (1907), which, however, did not have any impact, as it was not published until 1953. Alban Berg's "Jugendlieder" also belong to this corpus..

The school had a style-defining effect on so-called musical ''expressionism'', which was joined by some – mostly early – works by other composers.

Under the keyword ''atonality'', which refers less to a style than to a compositional technique subsequently designated as such, the ''Viennese School'' is "leading the way". The compositional development then leads on to the ''twelve-tone technique'', which also designates a compositional technique and not a style.

It should not be overlooked that Schoenberg and Berg also developed a number of intersections with ''neoclassicism'' – mainly on the level of form and less in terms of composition and adopted stylistic elements.

===== Expressionism =====
{{main article|Expressionist music}}

Expressionism in music was developed in direct contact with the currents of the same name in the visual arts (''Die Brücke'', Dresden 1905; ''Der Blaue Reiter'', Munich 1909; Galerie ''Der Sturm'', Berlin 1910) and literature (Trakl, Heym, Stramm, Benn, Wildgans, Wedekind, Toller and others) from around 1906. As a style, it was completed around 1925, but the musical characteristics and many of the expressive gestures have endured to the present day.

The main representatives are the composers of the Second Viennese School: [[Arnold Schönberg]], [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]] as well as, against a different background of the history of ideas, [[Alexander Scriabin]].

Composers have sought a subjective immediacy of expression, drawn as directly as possible from the human soul. To achieve this, a break with tradition, with traditional aesthetics and the previous, hackneyed forms of expression was unavoidable.

Stylistically, the changed function of [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]]s is particularly striking; they appear on an equal footing with consonances and are no longer resolved – what was also called the "emancipation of dissonance". The [[tonality|tonal system]] is largely dissolved and expanded into [[atonality]]. Musical characteristics include: extreme [[pitch (music)|pitch]]es, extreme [[dynamics (music)|dynamic]] contrasts (from whispering to screaming, from ''pppp'' to ''ffff''), jagged [[melody]] lines with wide leaps; metrically unbound, free rhythm and novel [[instrumentation]]. Form: asymmetrical period structure; rapid succession of contrasting moments; often very short "aphoristic" pieces.

Rudolf Stephan: "Expressionist art, wherever and in whatever form it first appeared, was alienated, fiercely rejected and publicly opposed, but also enthusiastically welcomed by individuals. It had abandoned the traditional ideal of art being 'beautiful' in favour of a (claimed) claim to truth; it was probably not infrequently even deliberately 'ugly'. It was thus the first deliberate 'no-longer-beautiful art'."<ref>Rudolf Stephan: ''Expressionismus.'' In ''[[Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart]]'', 2nd edition, Sachteil vol.. 3, 1995, pp. 245f.</ref>

Main works:
* Scriabin: ''[[The Poem of Ecstasy]] op. 54'' for orchestra (1905–1908)
* Webern: ''Five movements for string quartet op. 5'' (1909)
* Webern: ''Six Pieces for Large Orchestra Op. 6'' (1909)
* Schoenberg: ''Three Piano Pieces op. 11'' (1909)
* Schönberg: ''Five orchestral pieces op. 16'' (1909, revised 1922)
* Schönberg: ''[[Erwartung]] op. 17'', monodrama (1909, not performed until 1924)
* Schoenberg: ''[[Sechs kleine Klavierstücke]] op. 19'' (1911)
* Webern: ''[[Five Pieces for Orchestra]] op. 10'' (1911)
* Schoenberg: ''[[Pierrot Lunaire]] op. 21'' for one speaking voice and ensemble (1912)
* Berg: ''Five orchestral songs after poems by Peter Altenberg op. 4'' (1912)
* Stravinsky: ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'' (1913)
* Berg: ''Three orchestral pieces op. 6'' (1914)
* Scriabin: ''Vers la flamme, poème op. 72'' for piano (1914)
* Webern: ''Songs for voice and ensembles opp. 14–18'' (1917–1925)
* Berg: ''[[Wozzeck]] op. 7'', opera (1917–1922, first performance 1925)
* Bartók: ''[[The Miraculous Mandarin]]'' for orchestra (1918–1923, rev. 1924 and 1926–31)

===== Atonality =====
{{main article|Atonality}}
The term "atonal" appeared in music theory literature around 1900 and from there migrated into music journalistic usage – usually used in a negative, combative manner. It is usually used to describe music with a harmony that does not establish any binding keys or references to a fundamental, i.e. to [[tonality]]. "Atonality", although often used in this way, is not a stylistic term, but belongs to the field of compositional techniques; the works written atonally belong predominantly to ''expressionism''. In addition to the main works mentioned there, the following were important, especially for the transitional phase from extended tonality to atonality:
* Schoenberg: ''[[Chamber Symphony No. 1 (Schoenberg)|Chamber Symphony No. 1]] op. 9'' (1906).
* Schoenberg: ''String Quartet No. 2 op. 10'' (1907–08), still in the key of F-sharp minor, but already freitonal, especially in the two vocal movements (soprano) "Litanei" and "Entrückung".
* Schoenberg: ''Das Buch der hängenden Gärten op. 15'', 15 poems by Stefan George for one voice and piano. (1908–1909)

=== Rupture through fascism or: The Second World War ===
{{main article|Music in Nazi Germany}}

During the [[National Socialist]] era, most forms of ''new music'', as well as [[jazz]] music, were designated as ''degenerate'' and their performance and dissemination banned or suppressed. The exhibition ''[[degenerate music]]'' on the occasion of the [[Reichsmusiktage]] in Düsseldorf in 1938 denounced the work of composers such as Paul Hindemith, Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg, [[Kurt Weill]] and others, as well as all Jewish composers. Instead, in the spirit of the "NS-Kulturpolitik", harmless untertainment and [[Gebrauchsmusik]] such as [[operetta]], [[Dance music|dance]] and [[March (music)|March music]], especially also [[Folk music]], were promoted and included in the propaganda. Numerous composers and musicians were persecuted or murdered by the National Socialists, often because of their Jewish origins. Many went into exile. Those who remained in Germany were partly attributed an "inner exile".

An important source on the position of New Music during the National Socialist era was the annotated reconstruction of the above-mentioned exhibition ''[[Degenerate Music]]'', which was first shown in Frankfurt from 1988 onwards, thus gradually beginning a reappraisal of this topic.<ref>see: Albrecht Dümling, Peter Girth (ed.): ''Entartete Musik. Dokumentation und Kommentar zur Düsseldorfer Ausstellung von 1938'', Düsseldorf: der kleine verlag, 1st/2nd edition 1988, 3rd revised and expanded edition 1993 {{ISBN|3-924166-29-3}}.</ref>

=== Institutionalisation and the new musical beginning after 1945 ===
The harsh rejection of New Music by concert audiences, which has gone down in history in a series of spectacular premiere scandals, has significantly promoted the literary discussion of New Music. Thus, first of all, the critics of the relevant journals took up their positions, but composers also found themselves increasingly called upon to comment on their creations or to take up the cause of their colleagues' works. Parallel to this, an increasingly extensive body of musical literature emerged that also sought to describe the philosophical, sociological and historical dimensions of New Music. Another subsequent phenomenon was the creation of specialised forums for the performance of New Music. [[Arnold Schönberg|Schönberg]]'s "[[Society for Private Musical Performances]]" (1918) is an early consistent step, which, however, slowly removes "Neue Musik" from the field of vision of the (quantitatively large) concert audience and turns it into a matter of specialists for specialists. The establishment of regular concert events, such as the [[Donaueschingen Festival]] and the founding of [[Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik]] are a further reaction to the significantly changed sociological situation in which composers of New Music and their audiences found themselves. The caesura in the development of New Music brought about by the catastrophe of the Second World War is attempted to be compensated for by the progressive institutionalisation of musical life after 1945. The conscious new beginnings of the reopened or newly founded music academies attempted to pick up the thread of the interrupted development. The founding of the public broadcasting companies gave composers a new forum for their works, and the awarding of composition commissions additionally stimulated their production.

After the end of the Second World War, the ''[[Darmstädter Ferienkurse|Kranichsteiner Ferienkurse für Neue Musik]]'', organised every two years by the [[Staatstheater Darmstadt]], became the most influential international event for new music in Germany. The dominant compositional techniques there were those of [[serialism]]. Anton Webern became the leading figure. [[Olivier Messiaen]], who uses in his works among others musical techniques of non-European musical cultures, but also methods of serial music, is the teacher of some of the composers who cause the most sensation there. Among them are:
* [[Pierre Boulez]] (also working as a conductor of "Neue Musik")
* Karlheinz Stockhausen (among others composer of [[electronic music]] and active at the [[Studio for Electronic Music (WDR)]] in Cologne)
* [[Luciano Berio]]
* [[Mauricio Kagel]] (experimental music theatre)
* [[Iannis Xenakis]]

(Important in this context are also the Institute for New Music and Music Education (INMM) Darmstadt with its annual spring conference and the Darmstadt International Music Institute (IMD), which has an extensive archive of rare recordings, especially of earlier events of the ''International Summer Courses for New Music''. The recordings are available on various media; since at least 1986 also on digital media).

While in the pre-war period the main impulses for the development of New Music came from Central Europe, primarily from the German-speaking countries, and other avant-gardists, for example Charles Ives in the US, received little attention, the development now became increasingly international. Traditionally strong musical countries such as France (with Olivier Messiaen, Pierre Boulez and Iannis Xenakis), Italy ([[Luciano Berio]], [[Luigi Nono]]) made important contributions, others such as Poland ([[Witold Lutosławski]], [[Krzysztof Penderecki]]) or Switzerland with [[Heinz Holliger]] and [[Jacques Wildberger]] joined in. In the US, the circle around [[John Cage]] and [[Morton Feldman]] was significant for Europe. It was not atypical for post-war developments in Germany that the emigrated musicians could contribute little, but rather that the "new generation" (especially [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]) became influential – with considerable support for example from France: as a teacher of Stockhausen and Boulez, Messiaen was a regular guest at the International Summer Courses in Darmstadt. In this sense, music may even have helped in the post-war peace process. Last but not least, some important representatives of New Music found their way from elsewhere to their places of work in Germany, such as [[György Ligeti]] from Hungary, [[Isang Yun]] from Korea and [[Mauricio Kagel]] from Argentina.

[[File:AdornoHorkheimerHabermasbyJeremyJShapiro2.png|thumb|{{center|Theodor Adorno (right) with Max Horkheimer}}]]

The most important (albeit controversial) theoretician of New Music in the German-speaking world is [[Theodor W. Adorno]] (1903–1969), a student of Alban Berg. In his ''Philosophy of New Music'', published in 1949, Adorno argues in favour of Schoenberg's [[Atonality|atonal]] compositional style and contrasts it with Stravinsky's neoclassical style, which was seen as a relapse into already outdated compositional techniques. For Adorno, the atonal revolution around 1910 by Schönberg meant the liberation of music from the constraints of tonality and thus the unhindered development of musical expression qua free atonality with the full impulse life of the sounds. In the German-speaking world, Adorno's thinking was then taken up by others [[Heinz-Klaus Metzger]].

The first turning point was the period around 1950, when the critic Karl Schumann summed up that the [[economic miracle]] had also led to a "cultural miracle". From the 1950s onwards, various developments took place, among others:
* [[Aleatoric music]] (''dice coincidence''): [[John Cage]], [[Earle Brown]], "moderate aleatoricism": [[Witold Lutosławski]]
* [[Neo-Dada]] (from about 1968)
* Expansion of traditional playing techniques: [[Helmut Lachenmann]], [[Friedrich Goldmann]] and the young [[Krzysztof Penderecki]]
* [[micropolyphony]], timbre music: [[György Ligeti]], {{Ill|Erhard Grosskopf|de}}
* [[Polystylistic]], collage: [[Bernd Alois Zimmermann]], [[Alfred Schnittke]], the Sinfonia of [[Luciano Berio]].
* [[Minimal music]] in America: among others. [[Terry Riley]]; [[Steve Reich]], [[Philip Glass]], [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]].
* Low-event, meditative and single-sound-oriented music, also mainly in the USA, close in thought to minimal music, but using other compositional principles (no pattern formation): [[Morton Feldman]], [[George Crumb]], in Germany [[Peter Michael Hamel]] and [[Walter Zimmermann]].
* in Germany: [[New Simplicity]]; among its representatives are. [[Hans-Jürgen von Bose]], Peter Michael Hamel, [[Wolfgang Rihm]], [[Manfred Trojahn]], [[Detlev Müller-Siemens]]
* New complexity : continuation of serial and constructive procedures; often emphasis on the performative. Main representatives: [[Brian Ferneyhough]] as well as his student [[Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf]]
* [[Spectral music]], especially in France: [[harmony]] and [[melody]] are derived from the [[acoustics]] [[Gérard Grisey]] was the initiator, and [[Tristan Murail]] is a main representative and repeatedly cited model. Another important representative of spectral music is the Austrian [[Georg Friedrich Haas]].
* Conceptual music: [[Peter Ablinger]], [[Antoine Beuger]], [[Johannes Kreidler]], Hannes Seidl, Martin Schüttler, Trond Reinholdtsen, Anton Wassiljew.
* [[Electroacoustic music]]: collective term for various conceptions of electronic sound production or transformation:
:* [[Studio for Electronic Music (WDR)|Electronic Music]]: music composed with synthetically generated sounds that originated in Cologne and initially emanated from [[Serialism]]. Its pioneers include [[Herbert Eimert]], [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]] and [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]].
:* [[Musique concrète]]: Electronic transformation of recorded sounds or noises, representatives include. [[Pierre Schaeffer]], [[Pierre Henry]], [[Luc Ferrari]] and [[Michel Chion]]
:* [[Acousmatic music]]: Music produced electronically in the form of sound objects whose means of sound production are not identifiable. The term became widespread mainly through [[François Bayle]] and [[Francis Dhomont]].
:* [[Algorithmic composition]]: composition using computer-generated structures – [[Jean-Claude Risset]], [[Orm Finnendahl]], [[Hanspeter Kyburz]], [[Enno Poppe]]. Among the pioneers of this field are the o.&nbsp;g. Gottfried Michael Koenig and Iannis Xenakis.

Another dimension in the case of some composers is the addition of an ideological or political (as a rule, "left-wing") orientation, which is particularly noticeable in vocal compositions. The quasi father of the idea is [[Hanns Eisler]], later Luigi Nono, [[Hans Werner Henze]], Rolf Riehm, Helmut Lachenmann, [[Nicolaus A. Huber]] and [[Mathias Spahlinger]].

Especially from the 1970s onwards, a trend towards individualisation sets in, in particular a definitive detachment from serial composing. In the music of our time, one can therefore speak of a stylistic pluralism. In György Ligeti's music for example, musical influences from different cultures and times can be observed. The Italian improviser and composer [[Giacinto Scelsi]], the Englishman [[Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji]], the Estonian [[Arvo Pärt]] and the Mexican by choice [[Conlon Nancarrow]] represent completely independent positions. The American [[Harry Partch]] represents a special extreme case: the dissemination of his music was opposed by the fact that it depended on its own microtonal instrumentation.

A fixed classification of composers into currents and "schools" cannot be compelling, since many contemporary composers have dealt with several styles in their lifetime (best example: Igor Stravinsky, who, although treated for decades as the antipode of Schoenberg, switched to the serial technique in his old age). In addition, alongside the respective [[avant-garde]], there is a large number of composers who integrate new techniques more or less partially and selectively into their compositional style, which is determined by tradition, or who attempt a synthesis between the two worlds, which is not quite adequately described by the keyword moderate modernism or "naive modernism", because it is too one-sided.

== Forums ==
{{div col}}
* [[Acht Brücken]], Cologne
* [[Aspekte Salzburg]], Salzburg
* chiffren – Kieler Tage für Neue Musik, Kiel
* [[Donaueschingen Festival]], Donaueschingen
* [[Dresdner Tage der zeitgenössischen Musik]], Dresden
* [[Eclat (festival)|Eclat]], Stuttgart
* [[Ensemble intercontemporain]], Paris
* Festival Archipel, Geneva
* [[Festival L’art pour l’Aar]], Bern
* [[Hallische Musiktage]]
* [[Darmstädter Ferienkurse|Internationale Ferienkurse für Neue Musik]], Darmstadt
* [[Internationale Weingartener Tage für Neue Musik]], Weingarten
* [[International Society for Contemporary Music#Weltmusiktage|ISCM World (New) Music Days]]
* [[Klangwerkstatt Berlin]]
* [[MaerzMusik]], Berlin
* [[Musicarama]], Hongkong
* [[Randspiele]], Zepernick bei Berlin
* Tage für Neue Musik Zürich
* [[Ultraschall Berlin]]
* [[Warsaw Autumn]]
* [[Weimarer Frühjahrstage für zeitgenössische Musik]], Weimar
* [[Wien Modern]], Wien
* [[Wittener Tage für neue Kammermusik]]
* [[Zeit für Neue Musik]], Bayreuth
{{div col end}}

== Ensembles ==
One of the first ensembles for New Music was the [[Domaine Musical]] initiated by Pierre Boulez. In 1976, he founded the [[Ensemble intercontemporain]], on whose model numerous ensembles of new music with similar instrumentation were subsequently formed, such as the Ensemble Modern in Frankfurt, the Klangforum Wien, the musikFabrik NRW, the Asko Ensemble, the London Sinfonietta and the KammarensembleN in Stockholm.
{{div col}}
* [[Alter Ego (ensemble)|Alter Ego]]
* [[Arditti Quartet]]
* [[Auditivvokal Dresden|AuditivVokal Dresden]]
* [[Basel Sinfonietta]], Basel/CH
* [[Collegium Novum Zürich]], CH
* Contrechamps, Genf/CH
* [[CQ – Cologne Contemporary Ukulele Ensemble]], Cologne (one of the few [[ukulele]] orchestras in Germany dedicated to Neue Musik)
* [[Ensemble Modern]], Freiburg
* Ensemble Dal Niente, Chicago/USA
* [[ensemble für neue musik zürich]]
* Ensemble Interface, Frankfurt
* [[Ensemble Modern]], Frankfurt
* [[Ensemble Phoenix Basel|Ensemble Phoenix]], Basel/CH
* [[Ensemble Phorminx]], Darmstadt
* [[Ensemble Proton Bern]], CH
* [[ensemble recherche]], Freiburg
* [[Ensemble Sortisatio]], Leipzig
* Ensemble Vortex, Genf/CH
* [[Gruppe Neue Musik Hanns Eisler]], Leipzig
* [[Interzone perceptible]], Essen
* [[Kairos Quartet]], Berlin
* [[Klangforum Wien]], Vienna
* [[Kronos Quartet]], San Francisco
* [[Ensemble intercontemporain]], Paris
* Le NEC, La Chaux-de-Fonds/CH
* [[LUX:NM]], Berlin
* [[Ensemble Musikfabrik]], Cologne
* [[Neue Vocalsolisten Stuttgart]]
* [[Österreichisches Ensemble für Neue Musik]], Salzburg
* [[Pegnitzschäfer-Klangkonzepte]], Nürnberg
* [[piano possibile]], Munich
* [[Remix Ensemble]] Casa da Música, Porto
{{div col end}}

== Organisations and institutions ==
{{div col}}
* ''[[Centre de documentation de la musique contemporaine]]'' (Cdmc), Paris
* ''[[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Elektroakustische Musik]]'' (DEGEM) – ''Vereinigung zur Verbreitung und Förderung elektroakustischer Musik''
* ''[[Forum Zeitgenössischer Musik Leipzig]]'' (FZML)
* ''[[Gare du Nord (Basel)]] – Bahnhof für Neue Musik''
* ''[[Gesellschaft für Neue Musik]]'' (GNM) – deutsche Sektion der IGNM bzw. ISCM
* ''[[IGNM-Sektion Österreich]]''
* ''[[Institut für Computermusik und Elektronische Medien]]'' (ICEM)
* ''Institut für kulturelle Innovationsforschung – new classical e.&nbsp;V.'' (IKI)
* ''Institut für Neue Musik und Musikerziehung'' (INMM), Darmstadt
* ''[[International Society for Contemporary Music]]'' (IGNM) bzw. ''International Society for Contemporary Music'' (ISCM) – organisiert die von Mitgliedsland zu Mitgliedsland jährlich wechselnden Weltmusiktage
* ''[[Internationales Musikinstitut Darmstadt]]'' (IMD), Darmstadt
* [[IRCAM]], Paris/F
* ''[[Netzwerk Neue Musik]]''
* ''[[Sächsischer Musikbund]]''
* ''[[Schweizerische Gesellschaft für Neue Musik]]'' (SGNM)
* ''[[Gesellschaft für Zeitgenössische Musik Aachen]]'' (GZM)
{{div col end}}

== Journals ==
* ''{{Ill|Musikblätter des Anbruch|de}}''
* ''Dissonance. Schweizer Musikzeitschrift für Forschung und Kreation'' (Published in a bilingual version: German and French, discontinued in 2018)
* ''KunstMusik. Schriften zur Musik als Kunst''
* ''[[MusikTexte|MusikTexte. Zeitschrift für neue Musik]]''
* ''[[Neue Musikzeitung|nmz]]'' ''[[Neue Musikzeitung]]''
* ''[[Neue Zeitschrift für Musik]]''
* ''[[Positionen|Positionen. Texte zur aktuellen Musik]]''
* ''Seiltanz. Beiträge zur Musik der Gegenwart''

== See also ==
* [[Electronic music]]
* [[Electroacoustic music]]
* [[Computer music]]
* [[Sonart]]

== Further reading ==
chronological; see also under each of the main articles
=== Overall presentations ===
* [[Christoph von Blumröder]]: ''Neue Musik'', 1980, 13 pages., in [[Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht]] and [[Albrecht Riethmüller]] (ed.): ''Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie'', Loseblatt-Sammlung, Wiesbaden: Steiner 1971–2006. Zur Geschichte des Begriffs, keine Musikgeschichte.
* Hanns-Werner Heister, Walter-Wolfgang Sparrer (ed.): ''[[Komponisten der Gegenwart]] (KDG)''. Loseblatt-Lexikon, edition text+kritik, Munich 1992 ff., {{ISBN|3-88377-799-4}}. Biographisches Lexikon mit großen Lücken, aber auch detaillierten Artikeln.
* [[Hermann Danuser]] (ed.): ''Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts'' (Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft vol. 07), Laaber 1984, 465 pages.
* Paul Griffiths: ''Modern Music and after''. Oxford University Press, 1995, {{ISBN|0-19-816511-0}}
* [[Helga de la Motte-Haber]] et al. (ed.): ''Handbuch der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert''. 13 volumes, Laaber 1999–2007, {{ISBN|3-89007-420-0}}
* Anton Haefeli: ''IGNM. Die Internationale Gesellschaft für Neue Musik. Ihre Geschichte von 1922 bis zur Gegenwart''. Atlantis, Zürich 1982, {{ISBN|3-7611-0596-7}}.

=== Moderne ===
* [[Paul Bekker]]: ''Neue Musik'' [Vorträge 1917–1921] (volume 3 der Gesammelten Schriften), Berlin: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt 1923, 207 pages.
* [[Adolf Weißmann]]: ''Die Musik in der Weltkrise'', Stuttgart 1922; English translation 1925: ''The Problems of Modern Music''
* [[Hans Mersmann]]: ''Die moderne Musik seit der Romantik'' (Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft [ohne Bandzählung]), Potsdam: Akademische Verlagsanstalt 1928, 226 pages.
* [[Theodor W. Adorno]]: Philosophie der neuen Musik, Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr 1949; 2nd edition Frankfurt: Europäische Verlagsanstalt 1958; 3rd ed. 1966, last edition.
* [[Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt]]: ''Neue Musik zwischen den beiden Kriegen'', Berlin: Suhrkamp 1951, 2nd edition as ''Neue Musik'', Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1981, latest edition {{ISBN|3-518-37157-6}}
* Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt: ''Schöpfer der neuen Musik – Porträts und Studien'', Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1958
* Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt: ''Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts'', Munich: Kindler 1969
* Hans Heinz Stuckenschmidt: ''Die Musik eines halben Jahrhunderts – 1925 bis 1975 – Essay und Kritik'', München: Piper 1976
* Stephan Hinton: ''Neue Sachlichkeit'', 1989, 12 S., in [[Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht]] and [[Albrecht Riethmüller]] (ed.): ''Handwörterbuch der musikalischen Terminologie'', Loseblatt-Sammlung, Wiesbaden: Steiner 1971–2006
* Martin Thrun: ''Neue Musik im deutschen Musikleben bis 1933''. Orpheus, Bonn 1995, {{ISBN|3-922626-75-0}}

=== Avantgarde ===
* Josef Häusler: ''Musik im 20. Jahrhundert – Von Schönberg zu Penderecki'', Bremen: Schünemann 1969. 80 pages Überblick, 340 pages „Portraitskizzen moderner Komponisten“.
* [[Ulrich Dibelius]]: ''Moderne Musik nach 1945'', 1966/1988, 3rd extended new edition Munich: Piper 1998, 891 pages. {{ISBN|3-492-04037-3}}
* [[Hans Vogt (composer)|Hans Vogt]]: ''Neue Musik seit 1945'', 1972, 3rd extended edition Stuttgart: Reclam 1982, 538 pages.
* Dieter Zimmerschied (ed.): ''Perspektiven Neuer Musik. Material und didaktische Information'', Mainz: Schott 1974, 333 pages.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.miz.org/artikel_themenportale_vorbemerkungen_tpnmneuemusik.html Themenportal Neue Musik in Deutschland des Deutschen Musikinformationszentrums]
* [http://www.babelscores.com/ BabelScores] BabelScores Förderung und Verbreitung Neuer Musik
* [https://www.goethe.de/de/kul/mus/gen/neu.html Online-Dossier Neue Musik aus Deutschland] des [[Goethe-Institut]]s
* [http://www.neue-musik.fm/ www.neue-musik.fm] Internetradio mit ausschließlich Neuer Musik.
* [https://www.datenbankneuemusik.de/start.html Datenbank Neue Musik]
*[https://www.walthererbacher.de/ Walther Erbacher], Komponist und Experte für Neue Musik

{{Classical music}}
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[[Category:Music history]]