Nickel: Difference between revisions
Content deleted Content added
No edit summary |
←Replaced content with '{{otheruses}}' |
||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{otheruses}} |
{{otheruses}} |
||
{{Infobox nickel}} |
|||
'''Nickel''' ({{pronEng|ˈnɪkəl}}) is a metallic [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Ni''' and [[atomic number]] 28. It is corrosion-resistant, finding many uses as in alloys and as a plating. |
|||
== Characteristics == |
|||
[[Image:Nickel Briketts.jpg|thumb|left|Nickel]] |
|||
[[Image:Electron shell 028 Nickel.svg|thumb|left|Electron shell diagram of nickel]] |
|||
It belongs to the transition metals and is hard and [[ductile]]. It occurs most usually in combination with [[sulfur]] and [[iron]] in [[pentlandite]], with [[sulfur]] in [[millerite]], with [[arsenic]] in the mineral [[nickeline]], and with arsenic and [[sulfur]] in nickel [[galena|glance]].<ref>[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/28.html Los Alamos National Laboratory – Nickel]</ref><ref>[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/62.html National Pollutant Inventory - Nickel and compounds Fact Sheet]</ref><ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v419/n6903/abs/419132a.html High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins] (''[[Nature (magazine)|Nature]]'' [[Abstract (summary)|Abstract]])</ref> |
|||
nickel is a very reactive element, but is slow to react in air at normal temperatures and pressures. Due to its permanence in air and its inertness to [[oxidation]], it is used in coins, for plating [[iron]], [[brass]], etc., for chemical apparatus, and in certain alloys, such as [[Nickel silver|German silver]]. |
|||
Nickel is magnetic, and is very often accompanied by [[cobalt]], both being found in [[meteor]]ic iron. It is chiefly valuable for the [[alloy]]s it forms, especially many [[superalloy]]s, and particularly [[stainless steel]]. Nickel is also a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that in the presence of a [[magnetic field]], the material undergoes a small change in length.<ref>[http://aml.seas.ucla.edu/research/areas/magnetostrictive/overview.htm UCLA - Magnetostrictive Materials Overview]</ref> In the case of Nickel, this change in length is negative (contraction of the material), which is known as negative [[magnetostriction]]. |
|||
The most common [[oxidation state]] of nickel is +2, though 0, +1, +3 and +4 Ni complexes are observed. It is also thought that a +6 oxidation state may exist, however, results are inconclusive. |
|||
The unit cell of nickel is a face centered cube with a lattice parameter of 0.352 nm giving a radius of the atom of 0.125 nm.<ref>{{cite book |title=Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction |last=Callister |first=William D. |year=2007 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |edition=7th edition |isbn=978-0-471-73696-7}}</ref> |
|||
[[Nickel-62]] is the most stable nuclide of all the existing elements; it is more stable even than [[Iron-56]]. |
|||
== History == |
|||
The use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 20 BC. [[Bronze]]s from what is now Syria had a nickel content of up to 100%.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "[[Cupronickel|white copper]]" (i.e. baitung) was used in the Orient between 1700 and 1400 BC. However, because the ores of nickel were easily mistaken for ores of silver, any understanding of this metal and its use dates to more contemporary times. Nickel is used today as common household utensils, such as silverware.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
Minerals containing nickel (e.g. German: Kupfernickel, Old or Low German: [http://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kopper Kopper]-Nickel or Koppernickel, meaning copper and ("Nick"), or false copper) were of value for colouring glass green. In 1751, Baron [[Axel Fredrik Cronstedt]] was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel (now called niccolite), and obtained instead a white metal that he called nickel.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied to the copper-nickel Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the name designated the three-cent coin introduced in 1865, and the following year the [[Nickel (United States coin)|five-cent shield nickel]] appropriated the designation, which has remained ever since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in [[Switzerland]]. [http://www.nidi.org/index.cfm/ci_id/160.htm] |
|||
also the name nickel was shortened from the German "Kupfernickel" meaning "Devil's copper." == Occurrence == |
|||
The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of [[ore]] deposits. The first are [[laterite]]s where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous [[limonite]]: (Fe, Ni)O(OH) and [[garnierite]] (a hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni, Mg)<sub>3</sub>Si<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>(OH). The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is [[pentlandite]]: (Ni, Fe)<sub>9</sub>S<sub>8</sub>. |
|||
* ''see [[Ore genesis]], [[:Category:Nickel minerals]]'' |
|||
In terms of supply, the [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]] region of [[Ontario]], [[Canada]], produces about 30 percent of the world's supply of nickel. The [[Sudbury Basin]] deposit is theorized to have been created by a massive [[meteorite]] [[impact event]] early in the [[geologic]] [[history of Earth]]. Russia contains about 40% of the world's known resources at the massive [[Norilsk]] deposit in [[Siberia]]. The Russian mining company [[MMC Norilsk Nickel]] mines this for the world market, as well as the associated [[palladium]]. Other major deposits of nickel are found in France (New Caledonia), [[Australia]], [[Cuba]], and [[Indonesia]]. The deposits in tropical areas are typically laterites which are produced by the intense weathering of [[ultramafic]] [[igneous rocks]] and the resulting secondary concentration of nickel bearing oxide and [[silicate minerals]]. A recent development has been the exploitation of a deposit in western [[Turkey]], especially convenient for European smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United States where nickel is commercially mined is [[Riddle, Oregon]], where several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
Based on [[geophysics|geophysical]] evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated in the [[Earth's core]]. |
|||
== Applications == |
|||
Nickel is used in many industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, magnets, coinage, and special alloys. It is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are innumerable varieties. It is also widely used for many other alloys, such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
Nickel consumption can be summarized as: nickel steels (60%), nickel-copper alloys and [[nickel silver]] (14%), malleable nickel, nickel clad, Inconel and other [[Superalloys]] (9%), plating (6%), nickel cast irons (3%), heat and electric resistance alloys, such as [[Nichrome]] (3%), nickel brasses and bronzes (2%), others (3%).{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for [[hydrogenation]], most often using [[Raney nickel]], a finely divided form of the metal.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
Nickel has also been often used in coins, or occasionally as a substitute for decorative [[silver]]. The [[Nickel (United States coin)|American 'nickel' five-cent coin]] is 75% [[copper]]. The [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|Canadian nickel]] minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9% nickel, and was magnetic.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
[[Nickel(III) oxide]] is used as the [[cathode]] in many [[rechargeable batteries]], including [[nickel-cadmium]], [[nickel-iron battery|nickel-iron]] and [[nickel-metal hydride battery|nickel-metal hydride]], and used by certain manufacturers in [[Li-ion]] batteries.{{Fact|date=September 2008}} |
|||
== Extraction and purification== |
|||
[[Image:Nickel (mined)2.PNG|thumb|left|Nickel output in 2005]] |
|||
Nickel is recovered by [[extractive metallurgy]]. Most sulfide ores have traditionally been processed using [[pyrometallurgical]] techniques to produce a [[Matte (metallurgy)|matte]] for further refining. Recent advances in [[hydrometallurgy]] have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed using these processes. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a [[froth flotation]] process followed by [[pyrometallurgical]] extraction. Recent advances in hydrometallurgical processing of sulfides has led to some recent projects being built around this technology. |
|||
Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of >75% purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via the [[Mond process]], which upgrades the nickel concentrate to >99.99% purity. This process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th century. Nickel is reacted with [[carbon monoxide]] at around 50 °C to form volatile nickel [[carbonyl]]. Any impurities remain solid. The nickel carbonyl gas is passed into a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres are maintained in constant motion. The [[nickel carbonyl]] decomposes depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres (known as pellets). Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 degrees Celsius to create fine powders. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as ''carbonyl nickel''. A second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many [[stainless steel]] applications, the nickel can be taken directly in the 75% purity form, depending on the presence of any impurities. |
|||
Nickel sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then get smelted. Smelting a nickel sulfide flotation concentrate requires a MgO level of <6% otherwise the temperature at which the smelting will be run at will be too high and lead to higher operating costs. After producing the nickel matte, further processing is done via the Sherrit-Gowden process. First copper is removed by adding [[hydrogen sulfide]], leaving a concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extration then efficiently separates the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel concentrate >99%. |
|||
In 2005, [[Russia]] was the largest producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely followed by [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[Indonesia]], as reported by the [[British Geological Survey]]. |
|||
== Compounds == |
|||
{{Expand|date=September 2008}} |
|||
*[[Kamacite]] is a naturally occurring [[alloy]] of [[iron]] and nickel, usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as [[cobalt]] or [[carbon]] may be present. Kamacite occurs in nickel-iron meteorites. |
|||
''See also [[:category:Nickel compounds|nickel compounds]].'' |
|||
== Isotopes == |
|||
{{main|Isotopes of nickel}} |
|||
Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable [[isotope]]s; <sup>58</sup>Ni, <sup>60</sup>Ni, <sup>61</sup>Ni, <sup>62</sup>Ni and <sup>64</sup>Ni with <sup>58</sup>Ni being the most abundant (68.077% [[natural abundance]]). 18 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterised with the most stable being <sup>59</sup>Ni with a [[half-life]] of 76,000 years, <sup>63</sup>Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and <sup>56</sup>Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 [[meta state]]. |
|||
Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type Ia [[supernova]]e and the shape of the [[light curve]] of these supernovae corresponds to the decay via [[beta radiation]] of nickel-56 to [[cobalt]]-56 and then to [[iron]]-56. |
|||
Nickel-59 is a long-lived [[cosmogenic]] [[radionuclide]] with a half-life of 76,000 years. <sup>59</sup>Ni has found many applications in [[isotope geology]]. <sup>59</sup>Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of [[meteorite]]s and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and [[sediment]]. |
|||
Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide <sup>60</sup>Fe (half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide <sup>60</sup>Fe had such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the [[solar system]] at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of <sup>60</sup>Ni. Therefore, the abundance of <sup>60</sup>Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. |
|||
[[Nickel-62]] has the highest [[binding energy]] per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946 Mev/nucleon). <ref>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin2.html#c1 The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Isotopes heavier than <sup>62</sup>Ni cannot be formed by [[nuclear fusion]] without losing energy. |
|||
Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known <!-- obviously He-3 is the champ-->. With 28 [[proton]]s and 20 [[neutron]]s <sup>48</sup>Ni is "[[Magic number (physics)#Doubly magic|doubly magic]]" (like <sup>208</sup>[[Lead|Pb]]) and therefore unusually stable |
|||
<ref>{{cite web | last = W. | first = P. | title = Twice-magic metal makes its debut - isotope of nickel | publisher = [[Science News]] | date = October 23, 1999 | url = http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_17_156/ai_57799535 | accessdate = 2006-09-29 }}</ref>. |
|||
The isotopes of nickel range in [[atomic weight]] from 48 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (48-Ni) to 78 u (78-Ni). Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope involved in [[supernova nucleosynthesis]] of elements heavier than iron. [http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1502_1.asp] |
|||
== Biological role == |
|||
Nickel plays numerous roles in the biology of microorganisms and plants, though they were not recognized until the 1970s. In fact [[urease]] (an enzyme which assists in the hydrolysis of [[urea]]) contains nickel. The NiFe-[[hydrogenase]]s contain nickel in addition to [[iron-sulfur cluster]]s. Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H<sub>2</sub>. A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, [[F430]], is present in the methyl [[coenzyme M]] reductase which powers [[methanogen]]ic [[archaea]]. One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster.<ref>Jaouen, G., Ed. Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, 2006</ref> Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of [[superoxide dismutase]]<ref>Szilagyi, R. K. Bryngelson, P. A.; Maroney, M. J.; Hedman, B.; Hodgson, K. O.; Solomon, E. I."S K-Edge X-ray Absorption Spectroscopic Investigation of the Ni-Containing Superoxide Dismutase Active Site: New Structural Insight into the Mechanism" Journal of the American Chemical Society 2004, volume 126, 3018-3019.</ref> and a [[glyoxalase]].<ref>Thornalley, P. J., "Glyoxalase I--structure, function and a critical role in the enzymatic defence against glycation", Biochemical Society Transactions, 2003, 31, 1343-8.</ref> |
|||
== Precautions == |
|||
Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be [[carcinogen]]ic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well.<ref>KS Kasprzak, FW Sunderman Jr, K Salnikow. ''Nickel carcinogenesis.'' Mutation Research. 2003 Dec 10;533(1-2):67-97. {{PMID|14643413}}</ref><ref>JK Dunnick, MR Elwell, AE Radovsky, JM Benson, FF Hahn, KJ Nikula, EB Barr, CH Hobbs. ''Comparative Carcinogenic Effects of Nickel Subsulfide, Nickel Oxide, or Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate Chronic Exposures in the Lung.'' Cancer Research. 1995 Nov 15;55(22):5251-6. {{PMID|7585584}}</ref> |
|||
[[Nickel carbonyl]], [Ni(CO)<sub>4</sub>], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of a metal as well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic [[carbon monoxide]] gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air. {{Fact|date=March 2007}} |
|||
[[sensitization|Sensitized]] individuals may show an [[allergy]] to nickel affecting their skin, also known as [[dermatitis]]. Nickel is an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewelry intended for [[pierced ear]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Contact Dermatitis |date=2007 |volume=57 |issue=5 |pages=287–99 |title= The epidemiology of contact allergy in the general population—prevalence and main findings |author= Thyssen JP, Linneberg A, Menné T, Johansen JD |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x |pmid=17937743 |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2007.01220.x}}</ref> Nickel allergies affecting [[pierced ears]] are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact with human skin is regulated by the [[European Union]]. In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 [[Euro]] coins far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a [[Galvanization|galvanic]] reaction.<ref>O Nestle, H Speidel, MO Speidel. ''High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins.'' Nature. 419, 132 (12 September 2002). [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v419/n6903/abs/419132a.html free abstract]</ref> |
|||
== Metal value == |
|||
As of [[September 24]], [[2008]] nickel was trading at $17060 US/[[metric ton|mt]] ($17.06 US/kg), [http://www.metalprices.com/#Tables] [http://www.thefinancials.com/commodities/GotoMarketReport.html?id=MarketBaseMetals_CMMetals.html]. Interestingly, the [[Nickel (United States coin)|US nickel coin]] contains 0.04 oz (1.25 g) of nickel, which at this new price is worth 2.1 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 2.6 cents, making the metal value almost 5 cents. Since a nickel is worth 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a loss. However, the [[United States Mint]], in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on [[December 14]], [[2006]], subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalize the melting and export of cents and nickels.[http://www.usmint.gov/pressroom/index.cfm?action=press_release&ID=724] Violators can be punished with a fine of up to US$10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years. |
|||
==References== |
|||
{{reflist}} |
|||
== External links == |
|||
{{Commons|Nickel}} |
|||
{{Wiktionary|nickel}} |
|||
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ni/index.html WebElements.com – Nickel] (also used as a reference) |
|||
{{clear}} |
|||
{{compact periodic table}} |
|||
[[Category:Dietary minerals]] |
|||
[[Category:Ferromagnetic materials]] |
|||
[[Category:German loanwords]] |
|||
[[Category:Nickel| ]] |
|||
<!-- interwiki --> |
|||
[[af:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[ar:نيكل]] |
|||
[[az:Nikel]] |
|||
[[bn:নিকেল]] |
|||
[[be:Нікель]] |
|||
[[bs:Nikl]] |
|||
[[bg:Никел]] |
|||
[[ca:Níquel]] |
|||
[[cv:Никĕль]] |
|||
[[cs:Nikl]] |
|||
[[co:Nichele]] |
|||
[[da:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[de:Nickel]] |
|||
[[et:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[el:Νικέλιο]] |
|||
[[es:Níquel]] |
|||
[[eo:Nikelo]] |
|||
[[eu:Nikel]] |
|||
[[fa:نیکل]] |
|||
[[fr:Nickel]] |
|||
[[fur:Nichel]] |
|||
[[gv:Nickyl]] |
|||
[[gl:Níquel]] |
|||
[[ko:니켈]] |
|||
[[hy:Նիկել]] |
|||
[[hi:निकेल]] |
|||
[[hr:Nikal]] |
|||
[[io:Nikelo]] |
|||
[[id:Nikel]] |
|||
[[is:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[it:Nichel]] |
|||
[[he:ניקל]] |
|||
[[jv:Nikel]] |
|||
[[kn:ನಿಕಲ್]] |
|||
[[ka:ნიკელი]] |
|||
[[sw:Nikeli]] |
|||
[[ht:Nikèl]] |
|||
[[ku:Nîkel]] |
|||
[[la:Niccolum]] |
|||
[[lv:Niķelis]] |
|||
[[lb:Néckel]] |
|||
[[lt:Nikelis]] |
|||
[[jbo:nikle]] |
|||
[[hu:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[mk:Никел]] |
|||
[[ml:നിക്കല്]] |
|||
[[mi:Konukōreko]] |
|||
[[mr:निकेल]] |
|||
[[nah:Iztāctepoztli]] |
|||
[[nl:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[ja:ニッケル]] |
|||
[[no:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[nn:Nikkel]] |
|||
[[oc:Niquèl]] |
|||
[[uz:Nikel]] |
|||
[[pa:ਨਿਕਲ]] |
|||
[[nds:Nickel (Metall)]] |
|||
[[pl:Nikiel]] |
|||
[[pt:Níquel]] |
|||
[[ro:Nichel]] |
|||
[[qu:Nikil]] |
|||
[[ru:Никель]] |
|||
[[scn:Nichel]] |
|||
[[simple:Nickel]] |
|||
[[sk:Nikel]] |
|||
[[sl:Nikelj]] |
|||
[[sr:Никл]] |
|||
[[sh:Nikl]] |
|||
[[fi:Nikkeli]] |
|||
[[sv:Nickel]] |
|||
[[ta:நிக்கல்]] |
|||
[[th:นิกเกิล]] |
|||
[[vi:Niken]] |
|||
[[tg:Никел]] |
|||
[[tr:Nikel]] |
|||
[[uk:Нікель]] |
|||
[[yi:ניקל]] |
|||
[[zh:镍]] |
|||