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{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Res Publica Romana
|conventional_long_name = Roman Republic
|common_name = Roman Republic
|national_motto = [[SPQR|Senatus Populusque Romanus]]
|continent = Afroeurasia
|region = Mediterranean
|era = [[Classical antiquity]]
|government_type = Republic
|year_start = 508 BC
|date_event1 = 44 BC
|event_start = Rape of [[Lucretia]]
|event1 = [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] proclaimed perpetual dictator
|event2 = [[Battle of Actium]]
|date_event2 = [[2 October]], 31 BC
|event_end = [[Augustus|Octavian]] proclaimed [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]
|year_end = 27 BC
|date_end = [[16 January]]
|p1 = Roman Kingdom
|s1 = Roman Empire
|flag_s1 = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
|image_map = Republica Romana.svg
|image_map_caption = '''[[Roman province]]s'''<!--links to map, plz leave bold---> on the eve of the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]], c. 44 BC
|capital = [[Rome]]
|latd= 41 |latm= 54 |latNS= N |longd= 12 |longm= 30 |longEW= E
|common_languages = [[Latin language|Latin]] (imperial), [[Greek language|Greek]] (administrative)
|religion = [[Roman polytheism]]
|leader1 = [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], [[Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus]]
|year_leader1 = 509–508 BC
|leader2 = [[Octavian|Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus]], [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]
|year_leader2 = 27 BC
|title_leader = [[Roman consul|Consul]]
|legislature = [[Roman assemblies]]
|stat_year1 = 326 BC<ref name=size>{{cite journal|journal=Social Science History |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |first=[[Rein Taagepera|Rein]] |last=[[Rein Taagepera|Taagepera]] |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |pages=125 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0145-5532%281979%293%3A3%2F4%3C115%3ASADOEG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/1170959}}</ref>
|stat_area1 = 10000
|stat_year2 = 200 BC<ref name=size/>
|stat_area2 = 360000
|stat_year3 = 146 BC<ref name=size/>
|stat_area3 = 800000
|stat_year4 = 100 BC<ref name=size/>
|stat_area4 = 1200000
|stat_year5 = 50 BC<ref name=size/>
|stat_area5 = 1950000
}}
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The '''Roman Republic''' was the phase of the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman civilization]] characterized by a [[republic]]an form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman [[Roman Kingdom|monarchy]], c. 510 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its [[subversion (politics)|subversion]], through a series of [[Roman Republican civil wars|civil wars]], into the [[Principate]] form of government and the Imperial period.

The Roman Republic was governed by a [[Constitution of the Roman Republic|complex constitution]], which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The [[History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic|evolution of the constitution]] was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy and the average Roman. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the founding of the republic. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance. Thus, only a revolution could overthrow this new aristocracy.

Rome also saw its territory expand during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome expanded to the point of dominating Italy. During the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. By this point, however, its republican political machinery was finally crushed under the weight of imperialism.

The precise event which signaled the transition of the Roman Republic into the [[Roman Empire]] is a matter of interpretation. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of [[Julius Caesar]] as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the [[Battle of Actium]] ([[2 September]], 31 BC), and the [[Roman Senate]]'s grant of [[Augustus|Octavian's]] extraordinary powers under the [[Augustus#First settlement|first settlement]] ([[January 16]], 27 BC), as candidates for the defining pivotal [[Epoch|event]].
{{TOClimit|limit=3}}

==Constitution==
{{main|Roman Constitution|Constitution of the Roman Republic}}
The '''Constitution of the Roman Republic''' was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles passed down mainly through precedent.<ref name="Byrd, 161">Byrd, 161</ref> The Roman constitution was not formal or even official. Its constitution was largely unwritten, uncodified, and constantly evolving.

===The Senate===
{{main|Senate of the Roman Republic}}
[[Image:Roman Constitution.jpg|thumb|left|Chart showing the checks and balances of the [[Constitution of the Roman Republic]].]]
The Senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the Senate.<ref name="Byrd, 96">Byrd, 96</ref> This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the high caliber and prestige of the Senators.<ref name="Cicero, 239">Cicero, 239</ref> The Senate passed decrees, which were called ''senatus consultum''. This was officially "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates.<ref name="Byrd, 44">Byrd, 44</ref> The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy.<ref name="Polybius, 133">Polybius, 133</ref> While its role in military conflict was officially, the Senate was ultimately the force that oversaw those conflicts. The senate also managed the civil administration in the city and the town.

===Legislative Assemblies===
{{main|Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic}}
It was the [[spqr|People of Rome]] - and thus the assemblies - who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates,<ref name="Polybius, 134">Polybius, 134</ref> the enactment of new laws,<ref name="Polybius, 135">Polybius, 135</ref> the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.<ref name="Polybius, 134"/> There were [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic#Comitia.2C_Concilium.2C_Conventio|two types of legislative assemblies]]. The first was the ''comitia'' ("committee"),<ref name="Lintott, 42">Lintott, 42</ref> which were assemblies of all citizens. The second type of assembly was the ''concilium'' ("council"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens.<ref name="Abbott, 251">Abbott, 251</ref>

====Assembly of the Centuries====
Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes. The centuries and the tribes would each gather into their own assemblies. The [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic#Assembly_of_the_Centuries|Comitia Centuriata]] ("Century Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries. The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul.<ref name = "Polybius, 132"/> The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had ''imperium'' powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could [[Declaration of war|declare war]], and ratify the results of a census.<ref name="Abbott, 257">Abbott, 257</ref> It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.<ref name="Cicero, 241">Cicero, 241</ref>

====Assembly of the Tribes====
The assembly of the tribes, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul,<ref name = "Polybius, 132"/> and was composed of thirty-five tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.<ref name="Lintott, 51">Lintott, 51</ref> The [[Legislative Assemblies of the Roman Republic#Voting_procedure_2|order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in]] was selected randomly by lot.<ref name="Taylor, 77">Taylor, 77</ref> Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.<ref name="Taylor, 7">Taylor, 7</ref>

====Plebeian Council====
The Plebeian Council<ref name="Abbott, 196">Abbott, 196</ref> was an assembly of plebeians, who would gather into their respective tribes. They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal. Since it was organized on the basis of the tribes, its rules and procedures were nearly identical to those of the Comitia Tributa.

===Executive Magistrates===
{{main|Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic}}
Each magistrate was vested with a degree of ''maior potestas'' ("major powers").<ref name="Abbott, 151">Abbott, 151</ref> Each magistrate could veto any action that was taken by a magistrate of an equal or lower rank. [[tribune|Plebeian tribunes]] and [[aedile|plebeian aediles]], on the other hand, were independent of the other magistrates.<ref name = "Polybius, 132"/><ref name="Abbott, 151"/>

====Magisterial powers, and checks on those powers====
Each republican magistrate held certain [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#The_Powers_of_the_magistrates|constitutional powers]]. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians ''and'' patricians) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate.<ref name="Lintott, 95">Lintott, 95</ref> The most powerful constitutional power was ''imperium''. ''[[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Imperium|Imperium]]'' was held by both consuls and praetors. ''Imperium'' gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates also had the power of [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Coercitio|coercion]]. This was used by magistrates to maintain public order.<ref name="Lintott, 97">Lintott, 97</ref> While in Rome, all citizens had an absolute protection against coercion. This protection was called ''provocatio'' (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents.

One check over a magistrate's power was his [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Collega|collegiality]]. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another check over the power of a magistrate was ''[[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Provocatio|provocatio]]''. ''Provocatio'' was a primordial form of [[due process]]. It was a precursor to our own ''[[habeas corpus]]''. If any magistrate was attempting to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune.<ref name="Cicero, 235">Cicero, 235</ref> In addition, once a magistrate's annual term in office expired, he would have to [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Annual_Terms|wait ten years]] before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some consuls and praetors, these magistrates would occasionally have their ''imperium'' extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a [[promagistrate]]), without officially holding that office.<ref name="Lintott, 113">Lintott, 113</ref>

====Consuls, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors, tribunes, and dictators====
{{Roman government}}
The [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Consuls|consul]] of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate.<ref name = "Polybius, 132"/><ref>Byrd, 20</ref> Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government.<ref name = "Polybius, 132"/> They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army.<ref name="Polybius, 132">Polybius, 132</ref><ref name="Byrd, 179">Byrd, 179</ref> His authority abroad would be nearly absolute.<ref name="Polybius, 132"/>

[[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Praetors|Praetors]] would administer civil law<ref name="Byrd, 32">Byrd, 32</ref> and command provincial armies. Every five years, two [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Censors|censors]] would be elected for an eighteen month term. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a [[census]]. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.<ref name="Byrd, 26">Byrd, 26</ref> [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Curule_aediles|Aediles]] were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#Quaestors|quaestors]] would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.

Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One obvious consequence of this sacrosanctity was the fact that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune.<ref name="Byrd, 23">Byrd, 23</ref>

In times of military emergency, a [[Executive Magistrates of the Roman Republic#The_dictator_and_the_.22ultimate_decree_of_the_senate.22|dictator]] would be appointed for a term of six months.<ref name="Byrd, 24">Byrd, 24</ref> Constitutional government would dissolve, and the dictator would become the absolute master of the state.<ref name="Cicero, 237">Cicero, 237</ref> When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.

==Political history==
{{main|History of the Roman Constitution|History of the Constitution of the Roman Republic}}
The constitutional history of the [[Roman Republic]] can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the [[roman kingdom|monarchy]] in 510 BC. The final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the [[Roman Empire]], in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the [[conflict of the orders|struggle]] between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.

===The patrician era (509-367 BC)===
According to legend, the last king was overthrown in 510 BC. While this story is nothing more than a legend which later Romans created in order to explain their past, it is likely that Rome had been ruled by a series of kings. The historical monarchy, as the legends suggest, was probably overthrown quickly. The constitutional changes which occurred immediately after the revolution were probably not as extensive as the legends suggest. The most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive. Before the revolution, a king would be elected by the senators for a life term. Now, two consuls were elected by the citizens for an annual term.<ref name="Abbott, 25">Abbott, 25</ref> Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office. His political powers, when exercised conjointly with his colleague, were no different from those of the old king.<ref name="Abbott, 26">Abbott, 26</ref> In the immediate aftermath of the revolution, the senate and the assemblies were as powerless as they had been under the monarchy.

In the year 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead [[secessio|seceded]] to the [[aventine|Aventine hill]]. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield.<ref name="Abbott, 28">Abbott, 28</ref> The plebeians called these new officials "[[Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic#Plebeian_tribunes_and_plebeian_aediles|plebeian tribunes]]". The tribunes would have two assistants, called "[[aedile|plebeian aediles]]". In 367 BC a law was passed, which required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year. In 443 BC, the [[Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic#Censors|censorship]] was created, and in 366 BC, the praetorship was created. Also in 366 BC, the curule aedileship was created.<ref name="Abbott, 37">Abbott, 37</ref> Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Comitia Centuriata ("Assembly of the Centuries") became the principle legislative assembly. In this assembly, magistrates were elected, and laws were passed.

During the fourth century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the Plebeian Council would have the full force of law. This gave the tribunes (who presided over the Plebeian Council) a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, the only power that the tribunes held was that of the veto.

===The Conflict of the Orders (367-287 BC)===
After the plebeian aedileship had been created, the patricians created the curule aedileship.<ref name="Abbott, 42-43">Abbott, 42-43</ref> After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the [[Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic#The_dictator_and_the_.22ultimate_decree_of_the_senate.22|dictatorship]] and the censorship. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected.<ref name="Abbott, 42">Abbott, 42</ref>

In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed. One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time. The other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office.<ref name="Abbott, 43">Abbott, 43</ref>

During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The senate realized the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals.<ref name="Abbott, 44">Abbott, 44</ref> To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.<ref name="Abbott, 45">Abbott, 45</ref>

Around the middle of the fourth century BC, the Concilium Plebis enacted the "Ovinian Law". During the early republic, only consuls could appoint new senators. The Ovinian law, however, gave this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly-elected magistrate to the senate.<ref name="Abbott, 46">Abbott, 46</ref> By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. However, it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well-known political family, as a new patrician-like plebeian aristocracy emerged.<ref name="Abbott, 47">Abbott, 47</ref> The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.<ref name = "Abbott, 48"/>

By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around wide-spread indebtedness. The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the [[Janiculum|Janiculum hill]]. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the "Hortensian Law"), which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council.<ref name="Abbott, 52">Abbott, 52</ref> This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law. The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC.<ref name="Abbott, 51">Abbott, 51</ref> The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of voters in a democracy, but to the new plebeian nobility.<ref name="Abbott, 53">Abbott, 53</ref>

The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been.<ref name="Abbott, 48">Abbott, 48</ref>

===The supremacy of the new nobility (287-133 BC)===
The great accomplishment of the Hortensian Law was in that it deprived the patricians of their last weapon over the plebeians. Thus, the last great political question of the earlier era had been resolved. As such, no important political changes would occur between 287 BC and 133 BC.<ref name="Abbott, 63">Abbott, 63</ref> The critical laws of this era were still enacted by the senate.<ref name="Abbott, 65">Abbott, 65</ref> In effect, democracy was satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy.<ref name="Abbott, 66">Abbott, 66</ref> This era was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic.

The final decades of this era saw a worsening economic situation for many plebeians. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, only to return to farms that had fallen into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit.<ref name="Abbott, 77">Abbott, 77</ref> The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their economic state usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered the most for them. A new culture of dependency was emerging, which would look to any populist leader for relief.<ref name="Abbott, 80">Abbott, 80</ref>

===From the Gracchi to Caesar (133-49 BC)===
The prior era saw great military successes, and great economic failures. The patriotism of the plebeians had kept them from seeking any new reforms. Now, the military situation had stabilized, and fewer soldiers were needed. This, in conjunction with the new slaves that were being imported from abroad, inflamed the unemployment situation further. The flood of unemployed citizens to Rome had made the assemblies quite populist. The ultimate result was an increasingly aggressive democracy.

====The Gracchi tribunates====
{{main|Gracchi}}
[[Image:Gaius Gracchus Tribune of the People.jpg|thumb|left|500px|Gaius Gracchus, tribune of the people, presiding over the Plebeian Council]]
[[Tiberius Gracchus]] was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named [[Marcus Octavius]]. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to [[impeach]] Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority.<ref name="Abbott, 96">Abbott, 96</ref> His law would be enacted, but Tiberius would be murdered when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.

Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. [[Gaius Gracchus|Gaius Gracchus']] ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces.<ref name="Abbott, 97">Abbott, 97</ref> In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a ''[[Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic#The_dictator_and_the_.22ultimate_decree_of_the_senate.22|senatus consultum ultimum]]'' ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the ''senatus consultum ultimum'' to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. By this point, however, the selfish democracy of Rome deserted him. He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered. The democracy, however, had finally realized how weak the senate had become.<ref name="Abbott, 98">Abbott, 98</ref>

====The ''populare'' party and the ''optimate'' party====
In 118 BC, King [[Micipsa]] of [[Numidia]] in north Africa died. He was survived by his two natural sons, [[Adherbal]] and [[Hiempsal]], and by his adopted son, [[Jugurtha]]. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, had both a ruthless personality and an open purse. It was both Jurgurtha's open purse, as well as the venality and incapacity of the Roman senate, which brought disgrace to the Roman name and defeat to the Roman arms.<ref name="Abbott, 101">Abbott, 101</ref> Jugurtha defeated several Roman armies. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes. His nemesis, [[Gaius Marius]], a young legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end. The incompetence of the senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display.<ref name="Abbott, 100">Abbott, 100</ref> The popular party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.

Several years later, a new power had emerged in Asia. In 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down that power, king [[Mithridates]] of [[Pontus]]. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], had been elected consul for the year. Sulla was then ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the democratic ("''[[populare]]''") party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("''[[optimate]]''") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla had become so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law that was intended to permanently weaken the tribunate.<ref name = "Abbott, 103"/> He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the ''populares'' under Marius and [[Lucius Cornelius Cinna]] soon took control of the city.

The ''populare'' record was not one to be proud of.<ref name="Abbott, 103">Abbott, 103</ref> They reelected Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten year interval between offices. They also transgressed democracy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and captured the city again. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, who had observed the violent results of radical ''populare'' reforms was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and thus the senate.<ref name="Abbott, 104">Abbott, 104</ref> Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.

====Pompey, Crassus, and the Catilinarian Conspiracy====
In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Spain. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], had just put down a slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the ''populare'' party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution.<ref name="Abbott, 108">Abbott, 108</ref> They attempted to forge an agreement with the ''populare'' party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.<ref name="Abbott, 109">Abbott, 109</ref>

Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began.<ref name="Abbott, 109-110">Abbott, 109-110</ref> After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named [[Lucius Sergius Catiline]]. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation.<ref name="Abbott, 110">Abbott, 110</ref> The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome,<ref name = "Abbott, 111"/> and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul for the year, [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]], intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. The result of this was that the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed upon an authorization (of dubious constitutionality) by the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.

The most important result of the Catilinarian conspiracy was that the ''populare'' party became discredited. The prior 70 years had witnessed a gradual erosion in senatorial powers. The violent nature of the conspiracy, in conjunction with the senate's skill in disrupting it, did a great deal to repair the senate's image.<ref name="Abbott, 111">Abbott, 111</ref>

====The First Triumvirate====
In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when [[Julius Caesar]] returned from his governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the [[First Triumvirate]]. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus would be promised a future consulship.<ref name = "Abbott, 112"/>

Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]], was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage.<ref name="Abbott, 112">Abbott, 112</ref> Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. Caesar did not wish to leave the senate in the hands of such unskillful politicians as Pompey and Crassus before he had crushed the spirit of the senate and deprived it of its two most dangerous leaders, [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] and Cicero. Therefore, he sent Cato on a mission to Cyprus, which was likely to ruin his reputation. He then facilitated the election of the former patrician [[Clodius]] to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius was a dangerous demagogue, and a bitter opponent of Cicero.<ref name = "Abbott, 113"/>

====The end of the First Triumvirate====
While Clodius terrorized the city with his armed gangs, Pompey and Crassus proved themselves to be as incompetent as Caesar had hoped.<ref name="Abbott, 113">Abbott, 113</ref> Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill-fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesars lieutenant, against the Kingdom of Parthia. Crassus sought enormous wealth and glory but was killed in one of the worst defeats in Roman History, that of Carrhae, and the Triumvirate was no more. Caesar's daughter, and Pompey's wife, Julia, would then die in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar.

Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome.<ref name="Abbott, 114">Abbott, 114</ref> This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war. On January 1 of 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the republic.<ref name="Abbott, 115">Abbott, 115</ref> On January 7 of 49 BC, the senate passed a ''senatus consultum ultimum'', which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. Caesar then crossed the [[Rubicon]] with his veteran army, and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar then entered the city unopposed.

===The period of transition (49-29 BC)===
The era that began when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium in 29 BC, saw the constitutional evolution of the prior century accelerate at a rapid pace. By 29 BC, Rome had completed its transition from being a city-state with a network of dependencies, to being the capital of a world empire.<ref name="Abbott, 129">Abbott, 129</ref>

With Pompey defeated, and order restored, Caesar wanted to ensure that his control over the government was undisputed. The powers which he would give himself would ultimately be used by his imperial successors.<ref name = "Abbott, 134"/> He would assume these powers by increasing his own authority, and by decreasing the authority of Rome's other political institutions.

Caesar would hold both the dictatorship and the tribunate, but alternate between the consulship and the proconsulship.<ref name="Abbott, 134">Abbott, 134</ref> In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46 BC, Caesar was given censorial powers,<ref name="Abbott, 135">Abbott, 135</ref> which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the senate to 900.<ref name = "Abbott, 137"/> This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless, and were thus unable to oppose him.<ref name="Abbott, 138">Abbott, 138</ref>

Near the end of his life, Caesar began to prepare for a war against the [[Parthia|Parthian Empire]]. Since his absence from Rome would limit his ability to install his own consuls, he passed a law which allowed him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC, and all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. This, in effect, transformed the magistrates from being representatives of the people, to being representatives of the dictator.<ref name="Abbott, 137">Abbott, 137</ref>

====Caesar's assassination and the Second Triumvirate====
Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. The motives of the conspirators were both personal, as well as political. Most of the conspirators were senators, and many of them were angry about the fact that he had deprived the senate of much of its power and prestige. The grievances that they held against him were vague, and as such, their plan against him was vague. This fact was plainly obvious by the subsequent course of events.<ref name="Abbott, 133">Abbott, 133</ref>

After his assassination, [[Mark Antony]] formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, [[Augustus|Gaius Octavian]]. Along with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Lepidus]], they formed an alliance known as the [[Second Triumvirate]].<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 237</ref> They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the [[Battle of Philippi]] in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval [[Battle of Actium]] in 31 BC, and in 30 BC he committed suicide. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the state.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of ancient Rome}}
[[Image:Julius Caesar - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|[[Julius Caesar]], from the bust in the [[British Museum]], in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902).]]

Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the [[city]] of [[Rome]], and its famed [[Seven hills of Rome|seven hills]]. The city also had several [[Roman theatre (structure)|theaters]].<ref> Jones, Mark Wilson ''Principles of Roman Architecture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. </ref> [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasiums]], and many [[tavern]]s, [[Thermae|baths]] and [[brothel]]s. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, [[residential]] [[architecture]] ranged from very modest [[house]]s to [[Roman villa|country villas]], and in the [[capital city]] of Rome, to the [[House|residences]] on the elegant [[Palatine Hill]], from which the word "''palace''" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into apartment blocks.

Most Roman towns and cities had a [[Roman Forum|forum]] and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. [[Aqueduct (Roman)|Aqueducts]] were built to bring [[water]] to urban centers<ref name="Kevin Greene, “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)">Kevin Greene, “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)</ref> and [[Ancient Rome and wine|wine]] and [[Cooking oil|oil]] were imported from abroad. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. To stimulate a higher labor productivity, many landlords freed a large numbers of slaves.

Beginning in the middle of the second century BC, Greek culture was increasingly ascendant,<ref name = "Scott, 404"/> in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls). Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the [[Roman villa|villas]], and much Roman cuisine was essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style.

===Social history and structure===
{{main|Social class in ancient Rome}}
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]].<ref name="Scott, 404">Scott, 404</ref> In [[architecture]] and [[sculpture]], the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the [[arch]] and the [[dome]]. Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of [[Virgil]] and [[Ovid]]. [[Latin]], the Republic's primary language, remains used in [[religion]], [[science]], and [[law]].

The center of the early social structure was the family,<ref name="Abbott, 1">Abbott, 1</ref> which was not only marked by [[bloodline|blood relations]] but also by the legally constructed relation of [[patria potestas]].<ref name="Abbott, 2">Abbott, 2</ref> The [[Pater familias]] was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death.<ref name="Abbott, 6">Abbott, 6</ref> Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities.

[[Slavery]] and slaves were part of the social order; there were [[slave trade|slave markets]] where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally [[mutilation]] and [[murder]] of slaves was prohibited by legislation. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was enslaved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shtml|publisher=BBC|title=Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome|accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dl.ket.org/latinlit/mores/slaves/|title=Slavery in Ancient Rome|accessdate=2008-06-20|publisher=Kentucky Educational Television}}</ref>

===Clothing and dining===
{{main|Roman cuisine}}
[[Image:Toga Illustration.png|left|thumb|Roman clad in a [[toga]]]]

The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by [[plebeians]] (common people) like shepherds and slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the [[tunic]] worn by [[patricians]] was of linen or white wool.<ref>Pliny the Elder's [[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]], book 12 pp. 38</ref> A magistrate would wear the tunic [[augusticlavi]]; senators wore a tunic with broad stripes, called [[tunica laticlavi]]. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the ''toga praetexta'', which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The ''toga virilis'', (or ''toga pura'') was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The ''toga picta'' was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The ''toga pulla'' was worn when in mourning.

Even [[footwear]] indicated a person’s social status. Patricians wore red and orange [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Men typically wore a [[toga]], and women a [[stola]]. The woman's ''stola'' looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly colored. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3181443.stm|title=Romans' crimes of fashion revealed|accessdate=2008-06-19|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>

Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of [[bread]], [[salad]], [[cheese]], [[fruit]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet, [[Horace]] mentions another Roman favorite, the [[olive]], in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, [[endive]]s, and smooth [[Althaea (genus)|mallows]] provide sustenance."<ref>"Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, ''Odes 1.31.15'', ca 30 BC</ref> The family ate together, sitting on [[stool]]s around a [[table (furniture)|table]]. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and [[spoon]]s were used for soups.

Wine was considered a staple drink,<ref name="Phillips pg 46-56">Phillips pg 46-56</ref> consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. [[Cato the Elder]] once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce.<ref name="Phillips pg 35-45">Phillips pg 35-45</ref> Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for [[alcoholism]], whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals. Prominent Roman alcoholics included [[Mark Antony]],<ref name="Phillips pg 57-63">Phillipa pg 57-63</ref> and Cicero's own son Marcus ([[Cicero Minor]]). Even [[Cato the Younger]] was known to be a heavy drinker.

===Education and language===
{{main|Roman school|Latin}}

Following various military conquests in the [[Greek East]], Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.<ref name="Legacy">The Legacy of Roman Education (in the Forum), Nanette R. Pacal, The Classical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4. (Apr. – May, 1984)</ref> Home was often the learning center, where children were taught [[Roman law]], [[convention (norm)|customs]], and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual [[recruitment]] into the [[army]]. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction<ref name = "Ox"/> from their mothers in the art of [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]], [[weaving]] ,and [[sewing]].

Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of [[Reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]] and [[counting]]. By the age of twelve, they would be learning [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[grammar]] and [[literature]], followed by training for [[public speaking]]. [[Oratory]] was an art to be practiced and learnt, and good orators commanded respect. To become an effective orator was one of the objectives of [[education]] and [[learning]]. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.<ref name="Ox">Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996</ref>

[[Image:Calligraphy.malmesbury.bible.arp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this [[Latin]] [[Bible]] from 1407.]]

The native language of the Romans was [[Latin]]. Although surviving [[Latin literature]] consists almost entirely of [[Classical Latin]], an artificial and highly stylized and polished [[literary language]] from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was [[Vulgar Latin]], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and [[dialect]]ized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct [[Romance language]]s.<ref name="Palmer">Palmer (1954).</ref> Many of these languages, including [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although [[English language|English]] is [[Germanic language|Germanic]] rather than Romanic in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.

===The arts===
[[Image:Titus Livius.jpg|thumb|left|225px|[[Livy]], the author of ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'', a monumental history of Rome.]]
{{main|Latin literature|Roman art|Roman music|Roman architecture}}

Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. [[Virgil]] represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His ''[[Aeneid]]'' tells the story of flight of Aeneas from [[Troy]] and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. [[Lucretius]], in his ''[[On the Nature of Things]]'', attempted to explicate [[science]] in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, [[Satires of Juvenal|Juvenal]]<ref> [[Lucilius]] – the acknowledged originator of Roman Satire in the form practiced by Juvenal - experimented with other meters before settling on dactylic hexameter.</ref> and [[Persius]]. The [[rhetoric]]al works of [[Cicero]] are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.

In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture<ref>{{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |year=1971 |month=December |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=439–442 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-840X%28197112%292%3A21%3A3%3C439%3ARA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O |accessdate= 2007-12-11 }}</ref> during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories.

[[Image:pompmusic.jpg|right|thumb|Detail of a mosaic found in Pompeii. The figure on the left is playing the double ''aulos'', double-reed pipes; the figure in the middle, ''cymbalum'', small, bronze cymbals; and on the right, the ''tympanum'', a tambourine-like drum.]]
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''μουσική'' (''mousike''), "(art) of the [[Muses]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368891|title=Mousike, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus}}</ref> Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneouvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.

Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the [[civil engineering]] and [[building]] [[construction]] [[technology]] became developed and refined. The Roman [[concrete]] has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently.<ref>W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982, fig. 131B; Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"</ref> The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained.

===Sports and entertainment===
The city of Rome had a place called the [[Campus Martius]] ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included [[jumping]], [[wrestling]], [[boxing]] and [[racing]]. [[equestrianism|Riding]], [[throwing]], and [[swimming]] were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, [[pastime]] also included [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]. [[Board game]]s played in Rome included [[Dice]] (Tesserae or [[Venus Throw|Tali]]), Roman Chess ([[Ludus latrunculorum|Latrunculi]]), Roman [[Draughts|Checkers]] (Calculi), [[Tic-tac-toe]] (Terni Lapilli), and [[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.<ref name="austin-roman1">Austin, Roland G. "Roman Board Games. I", ''Greece & Rome'' 4:10, October 1934. pp. 24-34.</ref> There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in ancient Rome}}

Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of [[Rome]], around 800 BC. However, the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC, when Romans came in contact with [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture, and adopted many of the Greek’s religious beliefs. Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each [[household]] was a [[temple]] to the [[Roman gods|gods]]. Each household had an altar (''[[lararium]]''), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform [[rite]]s, and interact with the household gods. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Proto-Indo-European pantheon]], others were based on [[Greek gods]]. The two most famous deities were [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] (the king God) and [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] (the god of war). With its cultural influence spreading over most of the [[Mediterranean]], Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as [[Cynic]]ism and [[Stoicism]].<ref>[[Agathias]], ''Histories'', 2.31.</ref>

==Military==
===Structural history===
{{main|Structural history of the Roman military}}
The '''structural history of the Roman military''' describes the major chronological transformations in the organization and constitution of the Roman armed forces. The Roman military was split into the [[Roman army]] and the [[Roman navy]], although these two branches were less distinct than they tend to be in modern defence forces. Within the top-level branches of army and navy, structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution.

====Manipular legion (509–107 BC)====
During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience.<ref>Boak, '' A History of Rome to 565 A.D.'', p. 87</ref> ''Maniples'' were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were typically deployed into three discreet lines based on the three heavy infantry types.

Each first line maniple were leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a brass breastplate and a brass helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 [[centimeter|cm]] (12 [[inches|in]]) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two [[throwing spears]]. The second infantry line was armed and armoured in the same manner as was the first infantry line. The second infantry line, however, wore a lighter coat of mail rather than a solid brass breastplate. The third infantry line was the last remnant of the hoplite-style (the Greek-style formation used occasionally during the early republic) troops in the Roman army. They were armed and armoured in the same manner as were the soldiers in the second line, with the exception that they carried a lighter spear.<ref name="polybiusB6">PolybiusB6</ref>

The three infantry classes<ref name="santosuossoP18">Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 18</ref> may have retained some slight parallel to social divisions within Roman society, but at least officially the three lines were based upon age and experience rather than social class. Young, unproven men would serve in the first line, older men with some military experience would serve in the second line, and veteran troops of advanced age and experience would serve in the third line.

The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.<ref name="santosuossoP18">santosuossoP18</ref> The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins.

A small navy had operated at a fairly low level after about 300 BC, but it was massively upgraded about forty years later, during the [[First Punic War]]. After a period of frenetic construction, the navy mushroomed to a size of more than 400 ships on the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] ("Punic") pattern. Once completed, it could accommodate up to 100,000 sailors and embarked troops for battle. The navy thereafter declined in size.<ref name="websterP156">Webster, ''The Roman Imperial Army'', p. 156</ref>

The extraordinary demands of the [[Punic Wars]], in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term.<ref>Smith, ''Service in the Post-Marian Roman Army'', p. 2</ref> In 217 BC, near the beginning of the [[Second Punic War]], Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the second century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population,<ref name="gabbaP9">Gabba, ''Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies'', p. 9</ref> partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it had not had to do in the past.

The distinction between the heavy infantry types began to blur, perhaps because the state was now assuming the responsibility of providing standard-issue equipment. In addition, the shortage of available manpower led to a greater burden being placed upon Rome's allies for the provision of allied troops.<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 11</ref> Eventually, the Romans were forced to begin hiring mercenaries to fight alongside the legions.<ref>Webster, ''The Roman Imperial Army'', p. 143</ref>

====The legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107 BC – 27 BC)====
[[Image:Marius Glyptothek Munich 319.jpg|thumb|205px|right|Bust of Marius, instigator of the Marian reforms]]
In a process known as the [[Marian reforms]], Roman [[consul]] [[Gaius Marius]] carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 10</ref> In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.<ref>Gabba, ''Republican Rome, The Army And the Allies'', p. 1</ref> The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominante the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.<ref name="SantosuossoP29">SantosuossoP29</ref>

Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land.{{hcref|η|}} Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"<ref name="gabbaP25">Gabba, ''Republican Rome, The Army and The Allies'', p. 25</ref> within the state.

The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a ''[[Cohort (military unit)|cohort]]'' and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier ''maniple'' sub-unit, and was divided into six [[Centuria#Military|centuries]] of 80 men each.<ref name="luttwakP14">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 14</ref> Each century was separated further into 10 "tent groups" of 8 men each. Legions additionally consisted of a small body, typically 120 men, of Roman legionary cavalry. The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry.<ref>Webster, ''The Roman Imperial Army'', p. 116</ref> Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.<ref name="luttwakP15">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 15</ref>

However, ''"the most obvious deficiency"'' of the Roman army remained its shortage of cavalry, especially heavy cavalry.<ref>Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 43</ref> As Rome's borders expanded and its adversaries changed from largely infantry-based to largely cavalry-based troops, the infantry-based Roman army began to find itself at a tactical disadvantage, particularly in the East.

After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], an invasion fleet was assembled in the [[English Channel]] to allow the invasion of ''[[Britannia]]''; under [[Pompey]], a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of [[Cilicia]]n pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.<ref name="websterP156">websterP156</ref>

{{RomanMilitary}}

===Campaign history===
{{main|Campaign history of the Roman military}}
The core of the '''campaign history of the Roman Republican military''' is the account of the [[Roman military]]'s land battles. Despite the encompassing of lands around the periphery of the [[Mediterranean|Mediterranean sea]], naval battles were typically less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome.

As with most ancient civilisations, Rome's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome's campaigns were characterised by one of two types. The first is the territorial [[expansionist]] campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive,<ref name="luttwakP38">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 38</ref> in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory. The second is the [[civil war]], of which examples plagued the Roman Republic in its final century.

Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories. Over the centuries the Romans "''produced their share of incompetents''"<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 15</ref> who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as [[Pyrrhus]] and [[Hannibal]],<ref>Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 312</ref> to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.

====Early Republic (458 BC - 274 BC) ====
=====Early Italian campaigns (458-396 BC)=====
The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 33</ref> Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either [[Latins|Latin]] towns and villages,<ref name="epitomeB1C11">Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman History'', Book 1, ch. 11</ref> or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers.<ref name="historyP38">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 38</ref> Rome defeated Latin cities in the [[Battle of Lake Regillus]] in 496 BC,<ref name="historyP37">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 37 See also: Livy, ''The Rise of Rome'', p. 89</ref><ref name="epitomeB1C11"/> the [[Battle of Mons Algidus]] in 458 BC, the [[Battle of Corbione]] in 446 BC,<ref>Cassius Dio, ''The Roman History'', Vol. 1, VII, 17</ref> the [[Battle of Corbione]]<ref name="enemiesP13">''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 13</ref> in 446 BC, the [[Battle of Aricia]],<ref>Livy, ''The Rise of Rome'', p. 96</ref> and an Etruscan city in the [[Battle of the Cremera]] in 477 BC,<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 41</ref><ref name="epitomeB1C12">Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman History'', Book 1, ch. 12</ref> {{Campaignbox Rome's Early Italian Campaigns}}By the end of this period, Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours,<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. II</ref> as well as secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the tribespeople of the nearby Apennine hills.

=====Celtic invasion of Italia (390-387 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox Roman-Gaulish Wars}}
By 390 BC, several Gallic tribes had begun invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe. The Romans were alerted of this when a particularly warlike tribe<ref>Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman History'', Book 1, ch. 13</ref> invaded two Etruscan towns from the north. These two towns were not far from Rome's sphere of influence. These towns, overwhelmed by the size of the enemy in numbers and ferocity, called on Rome for help. The Romans met them in pitched battle at the [[Battle of the Allia|Battle of Allia River]] around 390-387 BC. The Gauls, under their chieftain [[Brennus (4th century BC)|Brennus]], defeated the Roman army of around 15,000 troops and proceeded to pursue the fleeing Romans back to Rome itself and sacked the city<ref>Livy, ''The Rise of Rome'', p. 329 See also: Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 283</ref> before being either driven off or bought off. Now that the Romans and Gauls had blooded one another, intermittent warfare was to continue between the two in Italy for more than two centuries. The Celtic problem would not be resolved for Rome until the final subjugation of all Gaul by [[Julius Caesar]] at the [[Battle of Alesia]] in 52 BC.

=====Roman expansion into Italia (343-282 BC)=====
[[Image:Pietra bismantova.jpg|thumb|right|305px|Apennine hills around Samnium]]
{{Campaignbox Ancient Unification of Italy}}
{{Campaignbox Samnite Wars}}
After recovering surprisingly swiftly from the sack of Rome,<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rme'', Ch. IX, para. 4</ref> the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy. The [[First Samnite War]] of between 343 BC and 341 BC was a relatively short affair: the Romans beat the Samnites in two battles, but were forced to withdraw from the war before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the [[Latin War]].<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 48</ref><ref name="pennellC9P13">Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. IX, para. 13</ref> Rome bested the Latins in the [[Battle of Vesuvius]] and again in the [[Battle of Trifanum]],<ref name="pennellC9P13"/> after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule.<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 49 See also: Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. IX, para. 14</ref>

The [[Second Samnite War]], from 327 BC to 304 BC, was a much longer and more serious affair for both the Romans and Samnites.<ref name="historyOfRomeP52">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 52</ref> The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course. The Romans then proved victorious at the [[Battle of Bovianum]] and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards, leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms. By 304 BC the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory, founding several colonies.

Seven years after their defeat, with Roman dominance of the area looking assured, the Samnites rose again and defeated a Roman army in 298 BC, to open the [[Third Samnite War]]. With this success in hand they managed to bring together a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome.<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 53</ref> In the [[Battle of Populonia]] in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region.

=====Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)=====
[[Image:Pyrrhus route.jpg|thumb|300px|Route of Pyrrhus of Epirus]]
{{Campaignbox Pyrrhic War}}
By the beginning of the third century, Rome had established itself as a major power on the [[Italian Peninsula]], but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] at the time: [[Carthage]] and the [[Ancient Greece|Greek kingdoms]].<ref name="enemiesP14">Matyszak''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 14</ref><ref name="historyOrRomeP78">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 78</ref>

When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony<ref>Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 294</ref> erupted into open warfare in a naval confrontation, the Greek colony appealed for military aid to [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]]. Motivated by a personal desire for military accomplishment, Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25,000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC.

Despite early victories, Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable. Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''The Roman history'', Vol. 1, VIII, 3</ref> Facing unacceptably heavy losses with each encounter with the Roman army, Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula. In 275 BC, Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the [[Battle of Beneventum (275 BC)|Battle of Beneventum]]. While Beneventum was indecisive, Pyrrhus realised his army had been exhausted and reduced, by years of foreign campaigns, and seeing little hope for further gains, he withdrew completely from Italy.

The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome. Rome had shown it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean, and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad. Rome quickly moved into southern Italia, subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies.<ref>Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 307</ref> Now, Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula,<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. XI, para. 1</ref> and won an international military reputation.<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 80</ref>

====Mid-Republic (274 BC - 148 BC)====
=====Punic Wars (264-146 BC)=====
[[Image:Rome carthage 218.jpg|thumb|305px|right|Theatre of Punic Wars]]
{{Campaignbox First Punic War}}
{{Campaignbox Second Punic War}}
{{Campaignbox Third Punic War}}

The [[First Punic War]] began in 264 BC when settlements on Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay - Rome and Carthage - in order to solve internal conflicts. The war saw land battles in Sicily early on, but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa. Before the [[First Punic War]] there was no Roman navy to speak of. The new war in [[Sicily]] against [[Carthage]], a great naval power,<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. XII, para. 14</ref> forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors.<ref>Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 309</ref>

The first few naval battles were catastrophic disasters for [[Rome]]. However, after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine,<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Punic Wars'', p. 113</ref> a Roman naval force was able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet, and further naval victories followed.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Punic Wars'', p. 84</ref> The Carthaginians then hired [[Xanthippus of Carthage]], a Spartan mercenary general, to reorganise and lead their army.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Punic Wars'', p. 88</ref> He managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy. With their newfound naval abilities, the Romans then beat the Carthaginians in naval battle again at the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]] and leaving Carthage without a fleet or sufficient coin to raise one. For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically, and the Carthaginians sued for peace.

Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the [[Second Punic War]] when [[Hannibal Barca]] attacked a Spanish town,<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 29 See also: Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 25</ref> which had diplomatic ties to Rome.<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. XIII, para. 15</ref> Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy.<ref name="antiquityP153">Cantor, ''Antiquity'', p. 153 See also: Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 27</ref> Hannibal's successes in Italy began immediately, and reached an early climax at the [[Battle of Cannae]], where 70,000 Romans were killed.

In three battles, the Romans managed to hold off Hannibal but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies. By this time Hannibal's brother [[Hasdrubal Barca]] sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army. Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the [[Battle of the Metaurus|Metaurus River]].<ref name="antiquityP153"/> Unable to defeat Hannibal himself on Italian soil, the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa with the intention of threatening the Carthaginian capital. Hannibal was recalled to Africa, and defeated at the [[Battle of Zama]].

Carthage never managed to recover after the Second Punic War<ref>Pennell, ''Ancient Rome'', Ch. XV, para. 24</ref> and the [[Third Punic War]] that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission to raze the city of Carthage to the ground.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''The Punic Wars'', p. 338</ref> Carthage was almost defenceless and when besieged offered immediate surrender, conceding to a string of outrageous Roman demands.<ref name="punicP339">Goldsworthy, ''The Punic Wars'', p. 339</ref> The Romans refused the surrender, and the city was stormed after a short siege and completely destroyed. Ultimately, all of Carthage's North African and Spanish territories were acquired by Rome.

=====Macedon, the Greek poleis, and Illyria (215-148 BC)=====
[[Image:Athenian empire atheight 450 shepherd1923.png|right|thumb|300px|Map showing the southern Balkans and western Asia Minor]]
{{Campaignbox Macedonian Wars}}
{{Campaignbox First Macedonian War}}
{{Campaignbox Second Macedonian War}}
{{Campaignbox Third Macedonian War}}
{{Campaignbox Fourth Macedonian War}}
{{Campaignbox Rome against Antiochus III}}
Rome's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] of the kingdom of [[Macedon]] in northern [[Greece]], to attempt to extend his power westward. Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal's camp in Italy, to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome.<ref name="enemiesP47">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 47</ref><ref name="historyP115">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 115</ref> However, Rome discovered the agreement when Philip's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet.<ref name="enemiesP47"/> The [[First Macedonian War]] saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations, but they ultimately achieved their objective of pre-occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal.

Macedon began to encroach on territory claimed by several other Greek city states in 200 BC and these states pleaded for help from their newfound ally Rome. Rome gave Philip an ultimatum that he must submit Macedonia to being essentially a Roman province. Philip refused, and Rome declared war against Philip in the [[Second Macedonian War]].<ref name="enemiesP49">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 49</ref> Ultimately, in 197 BC, the Romans defeated Philip at the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]],<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 117</ref> and Macedonia was forced to surrender.

Rome now turned its attentions to another Greek kingdom, the [[Seleucid Empire]], in the east. A Roman force defeated the Seleucids at the [[Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)|Battle of Thermopylae]] and forced them to evacuate Greece.<ref name="historyP119">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 119</ref> The Romans then pursued the Seleucids beyond Greece, beating them in the decisive engagement of the [[Battle of Magnesia]].<ref name="historyP119"/><ref>Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 326</ref>

In 179 BC Philip died<ref name="historyP120">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 120</ref> and his talented and ambitious son, Perseus, took his throne and showed a renewed interest in Greece.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 75</ref> Rome declared war on Macedonia again, starting the [[Third Macedonian War]]. Perseus initially had greater military success against the Romans than his father. However, as with all such ventures in this period, Rome responded by simply sending another army. The second consular army duly defeated the Macedonians at the [[Battle of Pydna]] in 168 BC<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 92</ref><ref name="historyP120"/> and the Macedonians duly capitulated, ending the [[Third Macedonian War]].<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 53</ref>

The Fourth Macedonian War, fought from 150 BC to 148 BC, was the final war between Rome and Macedon. The Romans swiftly defeated the Macedonians at the [[Battle of Pydna (148 BC)|Second battle of Pydna]]. Another Roman army besieged and destroyed [[Corinth#Roman era|Corinth]] in 146 BC, which led to the surrender and thus conquest of the rest of Greece.<ref> History of Rome - The republic, Isaac Asimov.</ref>

====Late Republic (147 BC - 30 BC) ====
=====Jugurthine War (111-104 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox Jugurthine War}}
The [[Jugurthine War]] of 111-104 BC was fought between Rome and [[Jugurtha]] of the North African kingdom of [[Numidia]]. It constituted the final Roman pacification of Northern Africa,<ref name="stormingP29">Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 29</ref> after which Rome largely ceased expansion on the continent after reaching natural barriers of desert and mountain. Following Jugurtha's usurpation of the throne of Numidia,<ref>Sallust, ''The Jugurthine War'', XII</ref> a loyal ally of Rome since the Punic Wars,<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 64</ref> Rome felt compelled to intervene. Jugurtha impudently bribed the Romans into accepting his usurpation. Jugurtha was finally captured not in battle but by treachery.

=====The Celtic threat (121 BC) and the new Germanic threat (113-101 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox Cimbrian War}}

In 121 BC, Rome came into contact with two Celtic tribes (from a region in modern France), both of which they defeated with apparent ease. The [[Cimbrian War]] (113-101 BC) was a far more serious affair than the earlier clashes of 121 BC. The [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes of the ''[[Cimbri]]'' and the ''[[Teutons]]''<ref name="appianS6">Appian, ''History of Rome'', §6</ref> migrated from northern Europe into Rome's northern territories,<ref name="enemiesP75">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 75</ref> and clashed with Rome and her allies.<ref name="stormingP6">Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 6</ref> At the [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae]] and the [[Battle of Vercellae]] both tribes were virtually annihalated, which ended the threat.

=====Internal unrest (135-71 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox Servile Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Ancient Unification of Italy}}
The extensive campaigning abroad by Roman generals, and the rewarding of soldiers with plunder on these campaigns, led to a general trend of soldiers becoming increasingly loyal to their generals rather than to the state.<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 39</ref> Rome was also plagued by several slave uprisings during this period, in part because vast tracts of land had been given over to slave farming in which the slaves greatly outnumbered their Roman masters. In the last century BC at least twelve [[Roman Republican civil wars|civil wars]] and rebellions occurred. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later ''[[Caesar Augustus]]'') ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate's authority, and was made ''[[princeps]]'' (emperor).

Between 135 BC and 71 BC there were three [[Roman Servile Wars|"Servile Wars"]] involving slave uprisings against the Roman state, the [[Third Servile War|third]] and final uprising was the most serious.<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 77</ref> involving ultimately between 120,000<ref>Appian, Civil Wars, 1, 117</ref> and 150,000<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 43</ref> Additionally, in 91 BC the [[Social War (91–88 BC)|Social War]] broke out between Rome and its former allies in Italy over dissent among the allies that they shared the risk of Rome's military campaigns, but not its rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies achieved their objectives with legal proclamations which granted citizenship to more than 500,000 Italians.

The internal unrest reached its most serious state, however, in the two civil wars that were caused by the consul [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] at the beginning of 82 BC. In the [[Battle of the Colline Gate]]<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 161</ref> at the very door of the city of Rome, a Roman army under Sulla bested an army of the Roman senate, entered the city, and marched on Rome. Sulla's actions marked a watershed in the willingness of Roman troops to wage war against one another that was to pave the way for the wars which ultimately overthrew the republic, and caused the founding of the [[Roman Empire]].

=====Conflicts with Mithridates (89-63 BC) and the Cilician pirates (67 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox First Mithridatic War}}
{{Campaignbox Second Mithridatic War}}
{{Campaignbox Third Mithridatic War}}
[[Mithridates the Great]] was the ruler of [[Pontus]],<ref name="epitomeB3C5">Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman history'', Book 3, ch. 5</ref> a large kingdom in [[Asia Minor]] (modern Turkey), from 120 to 63 BC. Mithridates antagonised Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom,<ref>Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman history'', Book 3, ch. 5</ref> and Rome for her part seemed equally keen for war and the spoils and prestige that it might bring.<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 76</ref><ref name="epitomeB3C5"/> In 88 BC, Mithridates ordered the killing of a majority of the 80,000 Romans living in his kingdom.<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 158</ref> The massacre was the official reason given for the commencement of hostilities in the [[First Mithridatic War]]. The Roman general [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] forced Mithridates out of Greece proper, but then had to return to Italy to answer the internal threat posed by his rival, [[Gaius Marius]]. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus, but this proved only a temporary lull.

The [[Second Mithridatic War]] began when Rome tried to annex a province that Mithridates claimed as his own. In the [[Third Mithridatic War]], first [[Lucius Licinius Lucullus]] and then [[Pompey the Great]] were sent against Mithridates.<ref name="classicalworldP363">Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 363</ref> Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time [[Battle of the Lycus]].<ref name = "Plutarch">Plutarch, ''Lives'', Pompey</ref>

{{Campaignbox Rome against the Cilician Pirates}}
The Mediterranean had at this time fallen into the hands of [[pirates]],<ref name = "Plutarch"/> largely from [[Cilicia]].<ref name="epitomeB3C6">Florus, ''The Epitome of Roman history'', Book 3, ch. 6</ref> The pirates not only strangled shipping lanes but also plundered many cities on the coasts of Greece and Asia. [[Pompey]] was nominated as commander of a special naval task force to campaign against the pirates.<ref name = "Plutarch"/><ref name="classicalworldP363"/> It took Pompey just forty days to clear the western portion of the sea of pirates and restore communication between Iberia (Spain), Africa, and Italy.

=====Caesar's early campaigns (59-50 BC)=====
[[Image:Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul, 1st century BC.gif|right|thumb|300px|Map of the Gallic Wars]]
{{Campaignbox Gallic Wars}}
During a term as praetor in Iberia (modern Spain), Pompey's contemporary [[Julius Caesar]] defeated two local tribes in battle.<ref name="livescaesar">Plutarch, ''Lives'', Caesar</ref> Following his term as consul in 59 BC, he was then appointed to a five year term as the proconsular Governor of Cisalpine Gaul (current northern Italy), Transalpine Gaul (current southern France) and Illyria (the modern Balkans).<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 58</ref><ref name="livescaesar"/> Not content with an idle governorship, Caesar strove to find reason to invade Gaul, which would give him the dramatic military success he sought. When two local tribes began to migrate on a route that would take them near (not into) the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul, Caesar had the barely sufficient excuse he needed for his [[Gallic Wars]], fought between 58 BC and 49 BC.

Caesar defeated large armies at major battles 58 BC and 57 BC. In 55 and 54 BC he made [[Roman conquest of Britain|two expeditions into Britain]], becoming the first Roman to do so. Caesar then defeated a union of Gauls at the [[Battle of Alesia]],<ref name="stormingP62">Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 62 See also: Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 212</ref> completing the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, the entirety of Gaul lay in Roman hands. Gaul never regained its Celtic identity, never attempted another nationalist rebellion, and remained loyal to Rome until the fall of the western empire in 476.

=====Triumvirates and Caesarian ascension (53-30 BC)=====
{{Campaignbox Caesar's Civil War}}
By 59 BC an unofficial political alliance known as the [[First Triumvirate]] was formed between [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]], [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]], and [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] ("Pompey the Great") to share power and influence.<ref>Cantor, ''Antiquity'', p. 168</ref> In 53 BC, Crassus launched a Roman invasion of the Parthian Empire (modern Iraq and Iran). After initial successes,<ref name="enemiesP133">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 133</ref> he marched his army deep into the desert;<ref>Plutarch, ''Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans'', p. 266</ref> but here his army was cut off deep in enemy territory, surrounded and slaughtered at the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in which Crassus himself perished. The death of Crassus removed some of the balance in the Triumvirate and, consequently, Caesar and Pompey began to move apart. While Caesar was fighting in Gaul, Pompey proceeded with a legislative agenda for Rome that revealed that he was at best ambivalent towards Caesar<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 214</ref> and perhaps now covertly allied with Caesar's political enemies. In 51 BC, some Roman senators demanded that Caesar not be permitted to stand for consul unless he turned over control of his armies to the state, which would have left Caesar defenceless before his enemies. Caesar chose Civil War over laying down his command and facing trial.

[[Image:Caesar and Pompey.JPG|thumb|left|Busts of Caesar (left) and Pompey]]
By the spring of 49 BC, when Caesar crossed the Rubicon river with his invading forces and swept down the Italian peninsula towards Rome, Pompey ordered the abandonment of Rome. Caesar first directed his attention to the Pompeian stronghold of Iberia (modern Spain)<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 217</ref> but decided to tackle Pompey himself in Greece.<ref>Julius Caesar, ''The Civil War'', 81–92 See also: Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 218</ref> Pompey initially defeated Caesar, but failed to follow up on the victory. Pompey was then decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Pharsalus]] in 48 BC,<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 227 See also: Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 403</ref> despite outnumbering Caesar's forces two to one.<ref>Holland, ''Rubicon'', p. 312</ref> Pompey fled again, this time to Egypt, where he was murdered.

Pompey's death did not result in an end to the civil wars since initially Caesar's enemies were manifold and Pompey's supporters continued to fight on after his death. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of [[Metellus Scipio]] in the [[Battle of Thapsus]], after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the [[Battle of Munda]].

Despite his military success, or probably because of it, fear spread of Caesar, now the primary figure of the Roman state, becoming an autocratic ruler and ending the Roman Republic. This fear drove a group of senators to assassinate him in March of 44 BC.<ref name="antiquityP170">Cantor, ''Antiquity'', p. 170</ref> Further civil war followed between those loyal to Caesar and those who supported the actions of the assassins. Caesar's supporter Mark Antony condemned Caesar's assassins and war broke out between the two factions. Antony was denounced as a public enemy, and Caesar's adopted son and chosen heir, Gaius Octavian, was entrusted with the command of the war against him. At the [[Battle of Mutina]] Antony was defeated by the consuls [[Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]], who were both killed.

Octavian came to terms with Caesarians Antony and Lepidus in 43 BC when the [[Second Triumvirate]] was formed.<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 237</ref> In 42 BC [[Triumvir]]s [[Mark Antony]] and [[Augustus|Octavian]] fought the [[Battle of Philippi]] with Caesar's assassins [[Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]]. Although Brutus defeated Octavian, Antony defeated Cassius, who committed suicide. Brutus also committed suicide shortly afterwards.

However, civil war flared again when the Second Triumvirate of Octavian, Lepidus and [[Mark Antony]] failed. The ambitious Octavian built a power base of patronage and then launched a campaign against Mark Antony.<ref name="antiquityP170"/> At the naval [[Battle of Actium]] (off the coast of Greece), [[Augustus|Octavian]] decisively defeated Antony and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]]. Octavian was granted a series of special powers including sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome, permanent consular powers and credit for every Roman military victory, since all future generals were acting under his command. In 27 BC Octavian was granted the use of the names ''Augustus'' and ''Princeps'' indicating his primary status above all other Romans, and he adopted the title ''Imperator Caesar'' making him the first Roman Emperor.<ref name="grandP7">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 7</ref>

==Figures of the Republic==
{{MultiCol}}
===Early Republic===
* [[Lucretia]]
* [[Lucius Junius Brutus]]
* [[Cincinnatus]]
* [[Claudius Caecus|Appius Claudius the Censor]]
* [[Samnite wars]]
* [[Punic wars]], [[Carthage]], [[Hannibal]] and [[Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major]]
* [[Scipio Aemilianus]]
* [[Cato the Elder|Cato the Censor]]
* [[Macedonian wars]]
{{ColBreak}}
===Late Republic===
* [[Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus]] and [[Gaius Sempronius Gracchus]]
* [[Gaius Marius]] and [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]]
* [[Spartacus]] and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]]
* [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] and [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]]
* [[Cato the Younger|Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis]]
* [[Julius Caesar#Assassination plot|Prominent assassins of Julius Caesar]]: [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]] and [[Marcus Junius Brutus]]
* [[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]]
* [[Augustus|Octavian]] and [[Marcus Antonius|Mark Antony]]
{{EndMultiCol}}

===See also===
*[[Roman Republican coinage]]
*[[Moneyer#Roman Republican moneyers|Roman Republican moneyers]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Sources==
*{{citebook|author=Abbott, Frank Frost|year=1901|title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions|publisher=Elibron Classics|isbn=0-543-92749-0}}
*{{citebook|author=Byrd, Robert|year=1995|title=The Senate of the Roman Republic|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office Senate Document 103-23}}
*{{citebook|author=Caesar, Julius|year=58-50 BC|title=The conquest of Gaul|isbn=0-14-044433-5}}
*{{citebook|author=Cicero, Marcus Tullius|year=1841|title=The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws|edition=Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes By Francis Barham, Esq|location=London|publisher=Edmund Spettigue|volume=vol. 1}}
*{{citebook|author=Eck, Werner|year=2003|title=The Age of Augustus|publisher=Oxford: Blackwell Publishing|isbn=0-631-22957-4}}
*{{citebook|author=Flower, Harriet I.|year=2004|title=The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic|publisher=Cambridge}}
*{{citebook|author=Goldsworthy, Adrian|year=2003|title=The Complete Roman Army|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=0-500-05124-0}}
*{{citebook|author=Hart, B. H. Liddell |year=1926, reprint 2004|title=Scipio Africanus — Greater than Napoleon|publisher=DA CAPO Press|isbn=0-306-81363-7}}
*{{citebook|author=Holland, Tom|year=2005|title=Rubicon : the last years of the Roman Republic|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=0-385-50313-X}}
*{{citebook|author=Lintott, Andrew|year=1999|title=The Constitution of the Roman Republic|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=0-19-926108-3}}
*{{citebook|author=MacDonald, W. L.|year=1982|title=The Architecture of the Roman Empire|publisher=Yale University Press, New Haven|isbn=}}
*{{citebook|author=Matyszak, Philip|year=2004|title=The Enemies of Rome|publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=0-500-25124-X}}
*{{citebook|author=Owen, Francis|year=1993|title=The Germanic people; their Origin Expansion & Culture|publisher=Barnes & Noble Books|isbn=0-19-926108-3}}
*{{citebook|author=Palmer, L. R.|year=1954|title=The Latin Language|publisher=Univ. Oklahoma|isbn=0-8061-2136-X}}
*{{citebook|author=Polybius|year=1823|title=The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek|publisher=Oxford: Printed by W. Baxter|edition=Fifth Edition|volume=Vol 2}}
*{{citebook|author=Taylor, Lily Ross|year=1966|title=Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar|publisher=The University of Michigan Press|isbn=0-472-08125-X}}

==External links==
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=za4NAAAAYAAJ The Roman Republic] by Horace Moule (London: Bradbury & Evans, 1860)
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iJg2AAAAMAAJ The fall of the Roman Republic] by Charles Merivale (London: Longman Brown Green and Longmans, 1853)
*[http://www.roman-empire.net The Roman Republic and the Roman Empire]
*[http://www.caius-ebook.com/TheEndofTrust.htm The Late Roman Republic: The decline and fall of trust], An essay on the loss of trust in societies both ancient and modern
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20041230.shtml The Roman Republic] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]
*[http://novaroma.org/nr/Main_Page Nova Roma - Educational Organization] a working historical reconstruction of the Roman Republic
*[http://www.unrv.com Roman Empire History]
*[http://romanum.historicus.pl/ Polish Portal of Ancient Rome]
{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Roman Constitution}}

[[Category:Roman Republic| ]]
[[Category:509 BC establishments]]
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