View source for Sucrose

{{Short description|Disaccharide made of glucose and fructose}}
{{chembox
| Watchedfields  = changed
| verifiedrevid  = 458434693
| Name           = Sucrose
| ImageFile1     = Saccharose2.svg
| ImageName1     = Haworth projection of sucrose
| ImageClass1    = skin-invert-image
| ImageFile2     = Sucrose-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
| ImageName2     = Ball-and-stick model of sucrose
| IUPACName      = β-<small>D</small>-Fructofuranosyl α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside
| SystematicName = (2''R'',3''R'',4''S'',5''S'',6''R''<nowiki>)-2-{[(2</nowiki>''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-3,4-Dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxolan-2-yl]oxy}-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-3,4,5-triol
| OtherNames     = {{ubli
 | Sugar;
 | Saccharose;
 | α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranoside;
 | β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside;
 | β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranosyl-α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranoside;
 | α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranosyl-β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranoside;
 | Dodecacarbon monodecahydrate;
 | ((2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-[(2S,3S,4S,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-2,5-bis(hydroxymethyl)oxapent-2-yl]oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxahexane-3,4,5-triol)
 }}
| Section1       = {{Chembox Identifiers
| IUPHAR_ligand = 5411
| InChI = 1/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(264115619)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
| CASNo = 57-50-1
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 253582
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| EC_number = 200-334-9
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 5768
| PubChem = 5988
| RTECS = WN6500000
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB02772
| KEGG = C00089
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = C151H8M554
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 17992
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N
| SMILES = O1[C@H](CO)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H]1O[C@@]2(O[C@@H]([C@@H](O)[C@@H]2O)CO)CO
}}
| Section2       = {{Chembox Properties
| Properties_ref = <ref name="ICSC">{{ICSC-ref|1507|name=Sucrose|date=November 2003}}</ref>
| Formula = {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}
| MolarMass = 342.30 g/mol
| Appearance = Colourless crystals or white powder
| Density = {{cvt|1.587|g/cm3}}, solid
| Solubility = 2.01 g/mL ({{cvt|20|°C}}) 
| MeltingPt = None; decomposes at {{convert|186|°C|°F K|abbr=on}}
| LogP = −3.76
}}
| Section4       = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| Thermochemistry_ref =
| HeatCapacity =
| Entropy =
| DeltaHf = {{cvt|-2226.1|kJ/mol}}<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Haynes |editor1-first=W. M. |editor2-last=Lide |editor2-first=David R. |editor3-last=Bruno |editor3-first=Thomas J. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |date=2014–2015 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1482208672 |edition=95th |pages=5–40}}</ref>
| DeltaGf =
| DeltaHc ={{cvt|1349.6|kcal/mol|kJ/mol}}<ref name=CRC>''[[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]]'', 49th edition, 1968–1969, p. D-188.</ref> ([[Higher heating value]])}}
| Section3       = {{Chembox Structure
| CrystalStruct = [[Monoclinic]]
| SpaceGroup = P2<sub>1</sub>
| Dipole =
}}
| Section7       = {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS = [https://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics1507.htm ICSC 1507]
| NFPA-H = 0
| NFPA-F = 1
| NFPA-R = 0
| LD50 = 29700 mg/kg (oral, rat)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-50-1 |website=ChemIDplus |title=57-50-1 - CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N - Sucrose [JAN:NF] |access-date=2014-08-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812222747/https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-50-1 |archive-date=2014-08-12 }}</ref>
| PEL = TWA 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0574}}</ref>
| IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
| REL = TWA 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH/>
}}
| Section8       = {{Chembox Related
| OtherCompounds = [[Lactose]]<br />[[Maltose]]
}}
}}

'''Sucrose''', a [[disaccharide]], is a [[sugar]] composed of [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of [[white sugar]]. It has the [[molecular formula]] {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}.

For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either [[sugarcane]] or [[sugar beet]]. [[Sugar mill]]s – typically located in [[tropical regions]] near where sugarcane is grown – crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in [[temperate climate]]s where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The [[Sugar refinery|sugar-refining]] process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet.

Sugar is often an [[Added sugar|added]] ingredient in food production and recipes. About 185 million [[tonne]]s of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017.

Sucrose is particularly dangerous as a risk factor for [[tooth decay]] because ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' bacteria convert it into a sticky, extracellular, [[dextran]]-based [[polysaccharide]] that allows them to cohere, forming [[Dental plaque|plaque]]. Sucrose is the only sugar that bacteria can use to form this sticky polysaccharide.

==Etymology==
The word ''sucrose'' was coined in 1857, by the English chemist [[William Allen Miller|William Miller]]<ref>William Allen Miller, ''Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical'', Part III. Organic Chemistry (London, England: John W. Parker and son, 1857), [https://books.google.com/books?id=cuMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52 pages 52 and 54] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424193600/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52 |date=2017-04-24 }}.</ref> from the [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|sucre}} ("sugar") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars ''[[-ose]]''. The abbreviated term ''Suc'' is often used for ''sucrose'' in scientific literature.

The name ''saccharose'' was coined in 1860 by the French chemist [[Marcellin Berthelot]].<ref>Marcellin Berthelot, ''Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse'' (Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier, 1860),  [https://books.google.com/books?id=7AtQYV5FlVwC&pg=PA254 pp. 254–55] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013507/https://books.google.com/books?id=7AtQYV5FlVwC&pg=PA254 |date=2014-06-27 }}.</ref> Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose.

==Physical and chemical properties==

===Structural O-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranoside===
In sucrose, the [[monomer]]s glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond between C1 on the [[glucosyl]] subunit and C2 on the [[fructosyl]] unit. The bond is called a [[glycosidic linkage]]. Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β "pyranose" [[anomer]]s, but sucrose has only the α form. Fructose exists as a mixture of five [[tautomer]]s but sucrose has only the β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranose form. Unlike most [[disaccharide]]s, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the non-reducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units, and prevents sucrose from spontaneously reacting with cellular and circulatory macromolecules in the manner that glucose and other reducing sugars do. Since sucrose contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-[[reducing sugar]].

Sucrose crystallizes in the [[monoclinic]] [[space group]] P2<sub>1</sub> with room-temperature lattice parameters ''a'' = 1.08631&nbsp;nm, ''b'' = 0.87044&nbsp;nm, ''c'' = 0.77624&nbsp;nm, β = 102.938°.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal = Acta Crystallogr|year = 1952|volume = 5|pages = 689–90|doi = 10.1107/S0365110X52001908|title = The crystal structure of sucrose|author1=Beevers, C. A. |author2=McDonald, T. R. R. |author3=Robertson, J. H. |author4=Stern, F. |issue = 5| bibcode=1952AcCry...5..689B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1107/S0021889891002492|title=Sucrose, a convenient test crystal for absolute structures|year=1991|last1=Hynes|first1=R. C.|last2=Le Page|first2=Y.|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|volume=24|issue=4|page=352|bibcode=1991JApCr..24..352H }}</ref>

The purity of sucrose is measured by [[polarimetry]], through the rotation of [[Polarization (waves)|plane-polarized light]] by a sugar solution. The [[specific rotation]] at {{cvt|20|°C}} using yellow "sodium-D" light (589&nbsp;nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions.

===Thermal and oxidative degradation===
Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at {{convert|186|°C}} to form [[caramel]]. Like other [[carbohydrate]]s, it combusts to [[carbon dioxide]] and water by the simplified equation:

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 12 O2 → 12 CO2 + 11 H2O}}

Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer [[potassium nitrate]] produces the fuel known as [[rocket candy]] that is used to propel amateur rocket motors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka| website=Experimental Rocketry |title=Potassium Nitrate/Sucrose Propellant (KNSU) |access-date=2015-11-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026075559/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |archive-date=2015-10-26}}</ref>

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6 KNO3 -> 9 CO + 3 N2 + 11 H2O + 3 K2CO3}}

This reaction is somewhat simplified though. Some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the [[water-gas shift reaction]] also take place. A more accurate theoretical equation is:

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6.288 KNO3 -> 3.796 CO2 + 5.205 CO + 7.794 H2O + 3.065 H2 + 3.143 N2 + 2.988 K2CO3 + 0.274 KOH}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka |website=Experimental Rocketry|title=KN-Sucrose (KNSU) Propellant Chemistry and Performance Characteristics |access-date=2014-08-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118052432/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |archive-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>

Sucrose burns with [[chloric acid]], formed by the reaction of [[hydrochloric acid]] and [[potassium chlorate]]:

{{chem2|8 HClO3 + C12H22O11 -> 11 H2O + 12 CO2 + 8 HCl}}

Sucrose can be dehydrated with [[sulfuric acid]] to form a black, [[carbon]]-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation:

{{chem2|H2SO4 (catalyst) + C12H22O11 -> 12 C + 11 H2O + heat (and some H2O + SO3 as a result of the heat).}}

The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon is oxidised to {{chem2|CO2}} by {{chem2|O2}} from air.

{{chem2|C12H22O11 + heat -> 12 C + 11 H2O}}

{{chem2|12 C + 12 O2 -> 12 CO2}}
<div style="float:right;clear:right;margin-left:0.5em;">
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Solubility of sucrose in water vs. temperature
! T (°C) !! S (g/dL)
|-
| 50 || 259
|-
| 55 || 273
|-
| 60 || 289
|-
| 65 || 306
|-
| 70 || 325
|-
| 75 || 346
|-
| 80 || 369
|-
| 85 || 394
|-
| 90 || 420
|}
</div>

===Hydrolysis===
[[Hydrolysis]] breaks the glycosidic bond converting sucrose into [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the [[enzyme]] [[sucrase]] is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571354/sucrase "Sucrase"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425011926/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571354/sucrase |date=2010-04-25 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''</ref> Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as [[cream of tartar]] or lemon juice, both weak acids. Likewise, gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion, the bond between them being an acetal bond which can be broken by an acid.

Given [[Higher heating value|(higher) heats of combustion]] of 1349.6&nbsp;kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose,<ref>All three from ''[[CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics]]'', 49th edition, 1968-1969, pp. D-184-189.</ref> hydrolysis releases about {{cvt|1.0|kcal|kJ}} per mole of sucrose, or about 3 [[small calorie]]s per gram of product.

===Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose===
The [[biosynthesis]] of sucrose proceeds via the precursors [[UDP-glucose]] and [[fructose 6-phosphate]], catalyzed by the enzyme [[Sucrose-phosphate synthase|sucrose-6-phosphate synthase]]. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of [[uridine diphosphate]] (UDP).
Sucrose is formed by plants, [[algae]] and [[cyanobacteria]] but not by other [[organism]]s. Sucrose is the end product of [[photosynthesis]] and is found naturally in many food plants along with the [[monosaccharide]] fructose. In many fruits, such as [[pineapple]] and [[apricot]], sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as [[grapes]] and [[pear]]s, fructose is the main sugar.

====Chemical synthesis====
After numerous unsuccessful attempts by others, [[Raymond Lemieux]] and George Huber succeeded in synthesizing sucrose from [[acetylated]] glucose and fructose in 1953.<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal|last1 = Lemieux|first1 = R. U.|author-link1 = Raymond Lemieux|last2 = Huber|first2 = G.|title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose|journal = J. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume = 75|issue = 16|page = 4118|year = 1953|doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545}}</ref>

== Sources ==
In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and [[nectar]]s, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from [[photosynthesis]].<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021259 |chapter=Sucrose Metabolism |author=John E. Lunn |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher= John Wiley & Sons Ltd |date=December 2008|isbn=978-0470016176 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |title=Foods highest in Sucrose |website=SelfNutritiondata |publisher=Condé Nast |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719080357/https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |archive-date=2015-07-19 }}</ref> Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Although [[honeybee]]s consume sucrose, the [[honey]] they produce consists primarily of fructose and glucose, with only trace amounts of sucrose.<ref>{{cite book|title=Foods and Food Production Encyclopedia |author=Douglas M. Considine |editor1-first=Douglas M |editor1-last=Considine |editor2-first=Glenn D |editor2-last=Considine |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.|date=1982 |page=956|edition=1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8511-0|isbn=978-1-4684-8513-4 }}</ref>

As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes grapes, cherries, blueberries, blackberries, figs, pomegranates, tomatoes, avocados, lemons and limes.

Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar, but with the advent of [[industrialization]], it has been increasingly refined and consumed in all kinds of processed foods.

==Production==

===History of sucrose refinement===
{{multiple image
 | direction = vertical
 | align = left
 | footer = Table sugar production in the 19th century. [[Sugar cane]] plantations (upper image) employed slave or indentured laborers. The picture shows workers harvesting cane, loading it on a boat for transport to the plant, while a European overseer watches in the lower right. The lower image shows a sugar plant with two furnace chimneys. Sugar plants and plantations were harsh, inhumane work.<ref name=britain1/>
 | image1 = Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3581-33h Ingekleurde litho voorstellende de oo.jpg
 | image2 = StateLibQld 1 235370 Mill house and stables on the Macnade Sugar Plantation, Ingham, ca. 1881.jpg
 }}
[[File:Sokeritoppa.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[sugarloaf]] was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries. [[Sugar nips]] were required to break off pieces.]]
{{Main|History of sugar}}
The production of table sugar has a long history. Some scholars claim Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the [[Gupta dynasty]], around CE 350.<ref name=Adas>
Adas, Michael (2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC&pg=PA311 ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614041819/https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC&pg=PA311 |date=2013-06-14 }}. Temple University Press. {{ISBN|1-56639-832-0}}. p. 311.</ref>

Other scholars point to the ancient manuscripts of China, dated to the 8th century BCE, where one of the earliest historical mentions of [[sugar cane]] is included along with the fact that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from [[India]].<ref name="gr1"/> By about 500 BCE, residents of modern-day India began making sugar syrup, cooling it in large flat bowls to produce raw sugar crystals that were easier to store and transport. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called {{transliteration|hi|khanda}} ({{lang|hi|खण्ड}}), which is the source of the word ''candy''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sugarcane: Saccharum Offcinarum|publisher=USAID, Govt of United States|year=2006|page=7.1|url=https://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag&environ/Sugarcane.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106015828/https://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag%26environ/Sugarcane.pdf|archive-date=2013-11-06}}</ref>

The army of [[Alexander the Great]] was halted on the banks of river [[Indus River|Indus]] by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making "granulated, salt-like sweet powder", locally called {{transliteration|mr|sākhar}} ({{lang|mr|साखर}}), ({{lang|ur|شکر}}), pronounced as {{transliteration|grc|sakcharon}} ({{lang|grc|ζακχαρον}}) in Greek (Modern Greek, {{transliteration|el|zachari}}, {{lang|el|ζάχαρη}}). On their return journey, the Greek soldiers carried back some of the "honey-bearing reeds". Sugarcane remained a limited crop for over a millennium. Sugar was a rare commodity and traders of sugar became wealthy. Venice, at the height of its financial power, was the chief sugar-distributing center of [[Europe]].<ref name=gr1>{{cite book|title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution|author=Rolph, George |year=1873|publisher=San Francisco, J. J. Newbegin |url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich}}</ref> Moors started producing it in [[Sicily]] and [[Spain]]. Only after the [[Crusades]] did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the [[West Indies]] in 1506 ([[Cuba]] in 1523). The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] first cultivated sugarcane in [[Brazil]] in 1532.

Sugar remained a luxury in much of the world until the 18th century. Only the wealthy could afford it. In the 18th century, the demand for table sugar boomed in Europe and by the 19th century it had become regarded as a human necessity.<ref name=mintz/> The use of sugar grew from use in tea, to [[cake]]s, [[candy|confectionery]] and [[chocolate]]s. Suppliers marketed sugar in novel forms, such as solid cones, which required consumers to use a [[sugar nips|sugar nip]], a pliers-like tool, in order to break off pieces.

The demand for cheaper table sugar drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and table sugar manufacturing could thrive. Growing sugar cane crop in hot humid climates, and producing table sugar in high temperature sugar mills was harsh, inhumane work. The demand for cheap labor for this work, in part, first drove slave trade from Africa (in particular West Africa), followed by indentured labor trade from South Asia (in particular India).<ref name=britain1>{{cite web|title=Forced Labour|year=2010|publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom|url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204015712/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm|archive-date=2016-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lai, Walton|title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918|year=1993|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-7746-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vertovik, Steven|editor=Cohen, Robin|title=The Cambridge survey of world migration|year=1995|pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57 57–68]|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57}}</ref> Millions of slaves, followed by millions of indentured laborers were brought into the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, East Africa, Natal, north and eastern parts of South America, and southeast Asia. The modern ethnic mix of many nations, settled in the last two centuries, has been influenced by table sugar.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875–1917|author=Laurence, K |publisher=St Martin's Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-312-12172-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day|publisher=Caribbean Repeating Islands|url=https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia's-indian-arrival-day/|date=2009-05-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085806/https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/|archive-date=2017-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian indentured labourers|publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom|year=2010|url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212175352/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm|archive-date=2011-12-12}}</ref>

Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The [[steam engine]] first powered a sugar mill in [[Jamaica]] in 1768, and, soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. [[Andreas Marggraf]] identified sucrose in [[beet root]]<ref>Marggraf (1747) [https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 "Experiences chimiques faites dans le dessein de tirer un veritable sucre de diverses plantes, qui croissent dans nos contrées"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624083152/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |date=2016-06-24 }} [Chemical experiments made with the intention of extracting real sugar from diverse plants that grow in our lands], ''Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin'', pp. 79–90.</ref> and his student [[Franz Achard]] built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Prussia). The beet-sugar industry took off during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], when France and the continent were cut off from Caribbean sugar. In 2009, about 20 percent of the world's sugar was produced from beets.<ref name=agrisugar1>{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbook: Sugar beet white sugar|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|year=2009|url=https://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234431/https://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-05}}</ref>

Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

===Trends===
[[File:Sugar Beet Factory, England.jpg|thumb|upright=1.45|A table sugar factory in England. The [[Sugar beet#Processing|tall diffusers]] are visible to the middle left where the harvest transforms into a sugar syrup. The boiler and furnace are in the center, where table sugar crystals form. An expressway for transport is visible in the lower left.]]

Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: [[sugarcane]] (''Saccharum spp.'') and [[sugar beet]]s (''Beta vulgaris''), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the [[date palm]] (''Phoenix dactylifera''), [[sorghum]] (''Sorghum vulgare''), and the [[sugar maple]] (''Acer saccharum''). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water; concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2017, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 185 million tonnes.<ref name="prod2017">{{cite news|title=World 2017/18 sugar production, consumption seen at record: USDA|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sugar-usda-supplies/world-2017-18-sugar-production-consumption-seen-at-record-usda-idUSKBN1DH2LV|newspaper=Reuters|author=Marcy Nicholson|date=17 November 2017|access-date=21 December 2019|archive-date=14 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914144035/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sugar-usda-supplies/world-2017-18-sugar-production-consumption-seen-at-record-usda-idUSKBN1DH2LV|url-status=live}}</ref>

Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, because sugarcane does not tolerate frost. Sugar beets, on the other hand, grow only in cooler temperate regions and do not tolerate [[heat wave|extreme heat]]. About 80 percent of sucrose is derived from sugarcane, the rest almost all from sugar beets.

In mid-2018, India and Brazil had about the same production of sugar – 34 million tonnes – followed by the [[European Union]], [[Thailand]], and China as the major producers.<ref name="usda2018">{{cite web |title=Sugar: World Markets and Trade |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/sugar.pdf |publisher=Office of Global Analysis, Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=21 December 2018 |date=4 November 2018 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021034740/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/sugar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> India, the European Union, and China were the leading domestic consumers of sugar in 2018.<ref name=usda2018/>

Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing&nbsp;– the industry can store harvested beets until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.

The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former purchasers of sugar have switched to [[corn syrup]] (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candy manufacturers).

The low prices of [[glucose syrup]]s produced from [[wheat]] and corn ([[maize]]) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with [[artificial sweetener]]s, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.

===Types===

====Cane====
{{Main|Sugarcane}}
[[File:Cut sugarcane.jpg|thumb|Harvested sugarcane from Venezuela ready for processing]]
Since the 6th century BCE, cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid, often with lime ([[calcium oxide]]), to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. [[Centrifuge]]s usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the sugar product for use as is, or process it further to produce lighter grades. The later processing may take place in another factory in another country.

Sugarcane is a major component of Brazilian agriculture; the country is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and its derivative products, such as crystallized sugar and [[ethanol]] ([[ethanol fuel]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Sugarcane Producing Countries: Brazil outperforms its next 6 closest competitors combined|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugarcane-producing-countries.html|publisher=World Atlas|access-date=2 January 2018|date=25 April 2017|archive-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103082507/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugarcane-producing-countries.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Beet====
[[File:SugarBeet.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Sugar beets]]
{{Main|Sugar beet}}
Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "[[Diffuser (heat)|diffuser]]". An alkaline solution ("[[Lime water|milk of lime]]" and [[carbon dioxide]] from the lime kiln) then serves to [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] impurities (see [[carbonatation]]). After filtration,{{Clarify|date=February 2010}} evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as [[molasses]], or sells it on to producers of animal feed.

Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.

=====Cane versus beet=====
It is difficult to distinguish between fully refined sugar produced from beet and cane. One way is by [[isotope analysis]] of carbon. Cane uses [[C4 carbon fixation]], and beet uses [[C3 carbon fixation]], resulting in a different ratio of [[carbon 13|<sup>13</sup>C]] and [[carbon 12|<sup>12</sup>C]] isotopes in the sucrose. Tests are used to detect fraudulent abuse of [[European Union]] subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated [[fruit juice]].

Sugar cane tolerates hot climates better, but the production of sugar cane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet. As a result, some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as [[Egypt]]) have built new beet sugar factories since about 2008. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way.

The production of sugar leaves residues that differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cane molasses is often used in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beets unpalatable, and it consequently ends up mostly as [[industrial fermentation]] feedstock (for example in [[ethanol|alcohol]] distilleries), or as [[compound feed|animal feed]]. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning.

Pure beet sugar is difficult to find, so labelled, in the marketplace. Although some makers label their product clearly as "pure cane sugar", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the five major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or "private label" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, enabling beet sugar to be identified if the codes are known.<ref>[https://ibstreatmentcenter.com/Newsletters/Jan10.pdf January 2010 Newsletter] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924162218/https://ibstreatmentcenter.com/Newsletters/Jan10.pdf |date=2010-09-24 }}, IBS Treatment Center</ref>

====Culinary sugars====
[[File:Raw sugar closeup.jpg|thumb|Grainy raw sugar]]

=====Mill white=====
Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to [[sulfur dioxide]] during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption.<ref>{{cite book | author = Steindl, Roderick | date = 2005 | title = Syrup Clarification for Plantation White Sugar to meet New Quality Standards | editor = Hogarth, DM | publisher = Proceedings of the XXV Congress of International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists | pages = 106–16 | location = Guatemala, Guatemala City | url = https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130810042657/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | archive-date = 2013-08-10 }}</ref>

=====Blanco directo=====
Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, is produced by precipitating many impurities out of cane juice using [[phosphoric acid]] and [[calcium hydroxide]], similar to the [[carbonatation]] technique used in beet sugar refining. Blanco directo is more pure than mill white sugar, but less pure than white refined.

=====White refined=====
{{See also|White sugar}}
White refined is the most common form of sugar in North America and Europe. Refined sugar is made by dissolving and purifying raw sugar using [[phosphoric acid]] similar to the method used for blanco directo, a [[carbonatation]] process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of [[activated carbon]] or [[bone char]]. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage.{{Clarify|date=February 2010}}

White refined sugar is typically sold as '''''granulated sugar''''', which has been dried to prevent clumping and comes in various crystal sizes for home and industrial use:
[[Image:Sucre blanc cassonade complet rapadura.jpg|thumb|Sugars; clockwise from top left: Refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane]]
* {{Anchor|Coarse-grain}}'''Coarse-grain''', such as ''sanding sugar'' (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", ''nibbed sugar'' or ''sugar nibs'') is a coarse grain sugar used to add sparkle and flavor atop baked goods and candies. Its large reflective crystals will not dissolve when subjected to heat.
* '''Granulated''', familiar as table sugar, with a grain size about 0.5&nbsp;mm across.<ref name="tryengineering">[https://www.tryengineering.org/lessons/sugarnano.pdf Sugar Crystal Challenge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508221320/https://www.tryengineering.org/lessons/sugarnano.pdf |date=2013-05-08 }}. IEEE</ref> "[[Sugar cube]]s" are lumps for convenient consumption produced by mixing granulated sugar with sugar syrup.
* {{Anchor|Caster}}'''Caster''' (0.35&nbsp;mm),<ref name="tryengineering" /> a very fine sugar in Britain and other Commonwealth countries, so-named because the grains are small enough to fit through a [[sugar caster]] which is a small vessel with a perforated top, from which to sprinkle sugar at table.<ref name="OED">"castor, n.2." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2017. Web. 25 July 2017. It says castor is a misspelling that is now the preferred spelling.</ref> Commonly used in baking and mixed drinks, it is sold as '''"superfine"''' sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves faster than regular white sugar and is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. Caster sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a mortar or food processor.
* '''[[Powdered sugar|Powdered]]''', ''10X sugar,'' ''confectioner's sugar'' (0.060&nbsp;mm), or ''icing sugar'' (0.024&nbsp;mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of [[anticaking agent]] to prevent clumping&nbsp;— either [[corn starch]] (1% to 3%) or tri-[[calcium phosphate]].

[[File:Sa brownsugar.jpg|thumb|Brown sugar crystals]]
'''[[Brown sugar]]''' comes either from the late stages of cane sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup (blackstrap molasses). Brown sugar's color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do its moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.

===Measurement===

====Dissolved sugar content====
Scientists and the [[sugar industry]] use degrees [[Brix]] (symbol °Bx), introduced by [[Adolf Ferdinand Wenceslaus Brix|Adolf Brix]], as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose per 100&nbsp;grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose sugar and 75&nbsp;grams of water exist in the 100&nbsp;grams of solution.

The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "[[refractometric dried substance]]" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.

==Consumption==
{{Main|History of sugar}}
Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.<ref name=mintz>{{cite book|title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History|author=Mintz, Sidney|isbn=978-0-14-009233-2|year=1986|publisher=Penguin|url=https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint}}</ref> Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.

Sucrose forms a major element in [[confectionery]] and [[dessert]]s. Cooks use it for sweetening. It can also act as a [[Sugaring|food preservative]] when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "[[junk food]]s".

===Nutritional information===
{{nutritional value
| name = Sugars, granulated [sucrose]
| kJ = 1620
| protein = 0 g
| fat = 0 g
| carbs = 100 g
| calcium_mg =
| iron_mg = 0
| phosphorus_mg = 0
| potassium_mg = 2.0
| vitC_mg = 0
| thiamin_mg = 0
| riboflavin_mg = 0
| niacin_mg = 0
| selenium_ug = 0.6
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169655/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary [[nutrient]] and 390 [[kilocalories]] per 100 g serving (table).<ref name="nd">{{cite web|url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|title=Nutrition Facts for sugars, granulated [sucrose] per 100 g (USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21)|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|archive-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> There are no [[micronutrients]] of significance in fully refined sugar (table).<ref name=nd/>

===Metabolism of sucrose===
[[File:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumb|left|Granulated sucrose]]
In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by [[sucrase]] or [[isomaltase]] [[glycoside hydrolases]], which are located in the [[cell membrane|membrane]] of the [[microvilli]] lining the [[duodenum]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gray GM|title= Intestinal digestion and maldigestion of dietary carbohydrate|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|year=1971|volume=22|pages=391–404|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.22.020171.002135|pmid=4944426}}</ref><ref>Kaneko J.J. (2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 "Carbohydrate metabolism and its diseases"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922061138/https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 |date=2014-09-22 }}, p. 46 in Kaneko J.J., Harvey J.W., Bruss M.L. (eds.) ''Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals,'' San Diego, CA: Academic Press, {{ISBN|012370491X}}.</ref> The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In [[bacteria]] and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme [[invertase]]. Sucrose is an easily assimilated [[nutrient|macronutrient]] that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in [[blood glucose]] upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94&nbsp;[[kilocalorie]]s per gram (or 17&nbsp;[[kilojoule]]s per gram).

If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of [[metabolic syndrome]], including increased risk for [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|type 2 diabetes]], insulin resistance, weight gain and [[obesity]] in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=2013-10-01 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427 |access-date=2018-12-21 |archive-date=2018-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109162407/https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Tooth decay ====
[[Dental caries|Tooth decay]] (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus mutans]]'' live in [[dental plaque]] and metabolize ''any'' free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, [[lactose]], fructose, and cooked [[starch]]es)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |title=What causes tooth decay? |publisher=Animated-teeth.com |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |archive-date=2010-02-09 }}</ref> into [[lactic acid]]. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay.<ref>[https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html Tooth Decay] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025132424/https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html |date=2014-10-25 }}. Elmhurst.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref>[https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm What causes tooth decay?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |date=2010-02-09 }}. Animated-teeth.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref>

All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to ''[[Streptococcus sanguinis]]'' (formerly ''Streptococcus sanguis'') and ''Streptococcus mutans''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanzer|first=JM|title=Essential dependence of smooth surface caries on, and augmentation of fissure caries by, sucrose and Streptococcus mutans infection|journal=Infection and Immunity|date=August 1979|volume=25|issue=2|pages=526–31|doi=10.1128/IAI.25.2.526-531.1979|pmid=489122|pmc=443577}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite thesis|last=Darlington|first=W.|title=Metabolism of sucrose by Stepococcus sanguis 804 (NCTC 10904) and its relevance to the oral environment|type=Ph.D Thesis|publisher= University of Glasgow |date=August 1979}}</ref> Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes.<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn= 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable ''S. mutans'', ''S. sanguinis'' and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.
Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.

====Glycemic index====
Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a [[glycemic index]] of 65.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref>  Sucrose is digested rapidly,<ref name="wolever">{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref><ref name="nas">{{cite book|last=Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies|title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2005|page=323|doi=10.17226/10490|isbn=978-0-309-08525-0|url=https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715023623/https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose.<ref name="wolever" />

As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme [[sucrase]] to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the [[liver]] as [[glycogen]].<ref name=nas/>

====Gout====
The occurrence of [[gout]] is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.<ref>[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7219473.stm Gout surge blamed on sweet drinks] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816223811/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7219473.stm |date=2009-08-16 }}, BBC News, 1 February 2008</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |title=Nutrients for Gout – good and bad |author=Magidenko, Leonid |publisher=ABCVitaminsLife.com |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2010-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223191342/https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |archive-date=2009-02-23 }}</ref>

====Sucrose intolerance====
{{main|Sucrose intolerance}}

===UN dietary recommendation===
In 2015, the [[World Health Organization]] published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries.<ref>See [https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ ''Guideline: Sugars intake for adults and children. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015'' ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817100425/https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref>

===Religious concerns===
The sugar refining industry often uses bone char ([[calcinated]] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref>[https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm The Great Sugar Debate: Is it Vegan?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919012241/https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm |date=2009-09-19 }}. Vegfamily.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
 |last        = Yacoubou, MS
 |first       = Jeanne
 |title       = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
 |journal     = Vegetarian Journal
 |volume      = 26
 |issue       = 4
 |pages       = 16–20
 |publisher   = The Vegetarian Resource Group
 |location    = Baltimore, MD
 |year        = 2007
 |url         = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |access-date  = 2007-04-04
 |url-status     = live
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409003341/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
 |archive-date = 2008-04-09
}}</ref> About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with [[activated carbon]]. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be [[pareve]], meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be [[kosher]].<ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>

==Trade and economics==
{{update|section|date=January 2024}}
One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market.{{citation needed|date=November 2007}} International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3&nbsp;cents to over 60&nbsp;cents{{clarify|reason=What cents: US$ or euro? |date=April 2022}} per pound in the {{As of|2007|alt=past}} 50&nbsp;years. About 100&nbsp;of the world's 180&nbsp;countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around {{convert|3|kg|lb|abbr=off}} per person per annum in Ethiopia to around {{convert|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in Belgium.{{citation needed|date=November 2007}} Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around {{convert|35|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per person per year in middle income countries.

Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan, and many [[developing countries]] subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often up to triple the prices on the international market; {{As of|2007|alt=today}}, with world market sugar futures prices {{As of|2007|alt=currently}} strong, such prices were typically double world prices.

{{wide image|World raw sugar prices since 1960.svg|700px|{{center|World raw sugar price 1960–2014}}|alt=World raw sugar price from 1960 to 2014}}
Within international trade bodies, especially in the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the "[[G20 developing nations|G20]]" countries led by Brazil have long argued that, because these sugar markets in essence exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under [[free trade]]. While both the [[European Union]] and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and [[least developed countries]] (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "[[most favoured nation]]" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past.

In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled illegal the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ''ACP-EU Sugar Protocol'', that granted a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market.<ref>{{cite report |title=EC export subsidies on sugar |website=wto.org |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410230058/https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf |archive-date=2009-04-10}}</ref> In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures against the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22&nbsp;June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime that cut prices by 39% and eliminated all EU sugar exports.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugar |series=Agriculture |date=2004-07-14 |website=ec.europa.eu |publisher=European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets/sugar/index_en.htm |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822160634/https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets/sugar/index_en.htm |archive-date=2009-08-22}}</ref>

In 2007, it seemed<ref>{{cite web |title=International Sugar Trade Coalition |type=main page |website=sugarcoalition.org |url=https://www.sugarcoalition.org/ |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601235516/https://www.sugarcoalition.org/ |archive-date=2009-06-01}}</ref> that the [[U.S. Sugar Program]] could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7&nbsp;million to U.S. House and Senate incumbents in the 2006 U.S. election, more than any other group of U.S. food-growers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Seeing sugar's future in fuel |department=Business |date=8 October 2007 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/18sugar.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707111955/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/18sugar.html |archive-date=2017-07-07}}</ref> Especially prominent among sugar lobbyists were [[the Fanjul Brothers]], so-called "sugar barons" who made the single {{as of|2003|alt=largest}} individual contributions of [[soft money]] to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S. political system.<ref>{{cite news |title=America's sugar daddies |date=11 November 2003 |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307151447/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html |archive-date=2016-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Sugar daddie$ |date=1997-05-01 |magazine=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |url=https://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202042223/https://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html |archive-date=2008-12-02 }}</ref>

Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as '[[fair trade]]' commodities; the fair trade system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the [[Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International|Fairtrade Foundation]] offers a premium of $60.00&nbsp;per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade",<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugar |website=fairtrade.net |publisher=[[Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International]] (FLO) |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/sugar.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802115902/https://www.fairtrade.net/sugar.html |archive-date=2012-08-02}}</ref> government schemes such as the U.S. Sugar Program and the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol offer premiums of around $400.00&nbsp;per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14&nbsp;September 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU".<ref>{{cite report |title=Trade Issues |date=2010-05-06 |department=External Trade |publisher=[[European Commission]] |website=Ec.europa.eu |url=https://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/pr140907_en.htm |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905045532/https://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/pr140907_en.htm |archive-date=2009-09-05 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|first1 = J.|last1 = Yudkin|last2 = Edelman|first2 = J.|last3 = Hough|first3 = L.|title = Sugar: Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose|publisher = Butterworth|year = 1973|isbn = 978-0-408-70172-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sucrose}}
* [https://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html 3D images of sucrose ]  [https://web.archive.org/web/20230901094347/https://csi.chemie.tu-darmstadt.de/ak/immel/graphics/gallery/sucroses.html archived from the original]
* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0574.html CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]

{{Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism}}
{{Carbohydrates}}
{{Sugar}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Disaccharides]]
[[Category:Types of sugar]]