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Freeter is a term in Japan for people who do not work full-time jobs for one or more reasons. This does not include people that are students or homemakers. The Freeter age range is 15 to 34 years old.[1]
Origin of the Term and its Meanings Through Time[edit]
This term was coined by part-time job magazine From A editor Michishita Hiroshi in 1987 and was used to depict a "free" worker that worked less hours, earned pay hourly instead of a monthly paycheck like regular full time workers, and received none of the benefits of a regular full time worker (holiday pay, sick pay, bonus pay, paid leave).[2] The meaning of the term switched connotations from positive to negative after the economic bubble of the Japanese economy broke resulting in a recession in the 1990's. In the 1980's, the term was seen in a positive light signifying the freedom to explore other alternative options for employment for fun when the economy in Japan was prosperous with many different job opportunities.[2] In the 1990s and 2000's, the term switched to a negative connotation and Freeters were seen as burdens on society.
Complications of the Changing Economy & Education System: Freeter Increase[edit]
The increase of Freeters in the 1990's and 2000's is associated with the subsequent rapid changes that the nation has undergone since the bursting of the economic bubble at the beginning of the 1990s and the increasing neoliberalization of the economy.[2] The almost two decade recession urged companies to change their workforce policies to stay relevant in the global market. Companies halted hiring graduates for permanent employment, rolled back bonuses, incentivized senior employees to retire, and a strong policy of hiring temporary staff for more flexibility and company savings with over a third of the workforce moving onto contractual work.[3]
The relaxation of protective labor laws and the deregulation of recruitment practices in 1998 allowed companies to employ larger numbers of flexible workers for longer periods of time.[3]
The increase in private secondary schools is leading to a lower number of public school students getting enrolled into elite universities resulting in more demand for part-time work as full-time work is becoming less available to public school graduates.[4]
Common Attributes[edit]
Jobs that fit into the Freeter category are mostly service-type jobs. Some people are in Freeter type jobs due to their aspirations, like working toward a profession in the arts or performing arts. Working a part-time job allows the aspiring artists to work the minimum hours required to pay for rent and food so that the remaining hours can be assigned to perfecting their art. For aspiring artists, part-time jobs are temporary jobs to perfect their choice of art that will pay off later on in their lives.
Stigmas Involving Freeters & Masculinity and Femininity[edit]
Women have less financial incentives like men do (salary increases) to marry and women are traditionally seen as the caregivers of older family members, which is getting more difficult due to the increasing number of senior citizens.[4][5] If women marry, then the burden gets doubled with them having to take care of their parents, spouses parents, husband, and potential children. These issues with wanting to work for money and not marry leads to stigmas in femininity as not only parasite singles but 'unfeminine'.[6]
Work and marriage are seen as the two main identifiers for adulthood and are the normative ideals of masculinity.[1] Men deal with comparisons to the salaryman, also known as a "corporate warrior", the idolized ideal job for men during economic growth from the 1960's associated with Japan's rebuilding of its nation and economy after WWII.[2] The dominant masculine hegemonic discourse of the 1960's and after of the ideal man being self-sacrificing for work and the bread winner of the family has created a stigma where male freeters are seen less masculine and have a harder time with relationships, marriage, and eventually finding full-time work. Many men have seen their fathers in salaryman positions and do not want to fulfill that role because they want to spend more time with family and focus on hobbies.
Freeters in Popular Culture and Mass Media[edit]
Starting in the 1980's, television shows romanticized the role of Freeters in programs like Shomuni. Freeters in popular culture are mainly depicted as women and the jobs shown are of more prestigious freelance work like anime illustrating or software development, largely ignoring men, fast food workers, and other service oriented jobs.[2]
Mass media either portrays Freeters as lazy and irresponsible youth or casualties of the economic problems of corporate restructuring and recession. These issues are still being disputed among various media platforms.[2]
References[edit]
- ^ a b Cook, E. E. (2013-01-01). "Expectations of Failure: Maturity and Masculinity for Freeters in Contemporary Japan". Social Science Japan Journal. 16 (1): 29–43. doi:10.1093/ssjj/jys022. ISSN 1369-1465.
- ^ a b c d e f Super girls, gangstas, freeters, and xenomaniacs : gender and modernity in global youth cultures. Brison, Karen J., Dewey, Susan. (1st ed ed.). Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press. 2012. ISBN 978-0-8156-5169-7. OCLC 859674266.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ a b Lukács, Gabriella. (2010). Scripted affects, branded selves : television, subjectivity, and capitalism in 1990s Japan. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-9323-8. OCLC 662616872.
- ^ a b Maree, Claire (2004-06). "Same-Sex Partnerships in Japan: Bypasses and Other Alternatives". Women's Studies. 33 (4): 541–549. doi:10.1080/00497870490464396. ISSN 0049-7878.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Kelly, William W.; White, Merry I. (2019-12-31). 3. Students, Slackers, Singles, Seniors, and Strangers: Transforming a Family-Nation. Cornell University Press. doi:10.7591/9781501731112-004. ISBN 978-1-5017-3111-2.
- ^ Tokuhiro, Yoko (2009-09-25). Marriage in Contemporary Japan. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203871188. ISBN 978-0-203-87118-8.
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