User:0zqz0/Marine protected area
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[edit]MPA Criticism
[edit]Climate Change
[edit]Oceans are the primary carbon sink and have been greatly affected by global warming, especially in recent years. The ability of existing MPA designs to cope with changes in biodiversity due to ocean acidification, sea level rise, sea surface temperature increase, oxygen reduction, and other marine environmental issues remains questionable.[1][2][3][4][5] Despite differences in species adaptations, warming has affected the habitats of some marine species, such as corals, to move from lower to higher latitudes.[1][2] If MPA assumes a relatively stable ecological environment within the area as before, it may become ineffective when the range of species distribution changes or becomes extensive.[3] Hence, there's need to incorporate the climate change adaptation to the framework.
MPA in China
[edit]China has developed its unique MPA management system, which divides MPAs into two main categories: Marine Natural Reserves (MNRs) and Special Marine Protected Areas (SMPAs).[6][7][8] As of 2016, China has designated 267 MPAs, including 160 MNRs and 107 SMPAs, covering nearly 4% of the sea area.[6]
MNRs are the no-take areas under comprehensive protection that prohibit any kind of resource exploitation.[8] Unlike such traditional MPAs, SMPAs have been established in China since 2002.[6] SMPAs allow the use of marine resources in a supervised and sustainable way, aiming at reducing local development conflicts caused by MNRs (such as the survival of coastal fishermen) and greater matching of national economic development strategies.[6][7][8] Depending on local ecological considerations, SMPAs will subdivide into different functional zones. Areas with rare and endangered species or damaged and fragile environments are strict no-take areas and ecological restoration areas, while other areas will be considered sustainable resource use zone for current use and reserved zone for future use.[8]
Despite all the efforts, as China constructs MPA based on administrative hierarchy (national, provincial, municipal, and county), there exist problems of fragmentized division and inconsistent enforcement of MPAs.[8]
Reference List
[edit]- ^ a b Bruno, John F.; Bates, Amanda E.; Cacciapaglia, Chris; Pike, Elizabeth P.; Amstrup, Steven C.; van Hooidonk, Ruben; Henson, Stephanie A.; Aronson, Richard B. (2018). "Climate change threatens the world's marine protected areas". Nature Climate Change. 8 (6): 499–503. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0149-2. ISSN 1758-6798.
- ^ a b McLeod, Elizabeth; Salm, Rodney; Green, Alison; Almany, Jeanine (2009). "Designing marine protected area networks to address the impacts of climate change". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 7 (7): 362–370. doi:10.1890/070211. ISSN 1540-9295.
- ^ a b Soto, Cristina G. (2002). "The potential impacts of global climate change on marine protected areas". Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries. 11 (3): 181–195. doi:10.1023/A:1020364409616. ISSN 1573-5184.
- ^ Wilson, Kristen L.; Tittensor, Derek P.; Worm, Boris; Lotze, Heike K. (2020). "Incorporating climate change adaptation into marine protected area planning". Global Change Biology. 26 (6): 3251–3267. doi:10.1111/gcb.15094. ISSN 1354-1013.
- ^ Roberts, Callum M.; O’Leary, Bethan C.; McCauley, Douglas J.; Cury, Philippe Maurice; Duarte, Carlos M.; Lubchenco, Jane; Pauly, Daniel; Sáenz-Arroyo, Andrea; Sumaila, Ussif Rashid; Wilson, Rod W.; Worm, Boris; Castilla, Juan Carlos (2017). "Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (24): 6167–6175. doi:10.1073/pnas.1701262114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5474809. PMID 28584096.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b c d Hu, Wenjia; Liu, Jie; Ma, Zhiyuan; Wang, Yuyu; Zhang, Dian; Yu, Weiwei; Chen, Bin (2020). "China's marine protected area system: Evolution, challenges, and new prospects". Marine Policy. 115: 103780. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2019.103780. ISSN 0308-597X.
- ^ a b Li, Yunzhou; Fluharty, David L. (2017). "Marine protected area networks in China: Challenges and prospects". Marine Policy. 85: 8–16. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.08.001. ISSN 0308-597X.
- ^ a b c d e Ma, Chun; Zhang, Xiaochun; Chen, Weiping; Zhang, Guangyu; Duan, Huihui; Ju, Meiting; Li, Hongyuan; Yang, Zhihong (2013). "China's special marine protected area policy: Trade-off between economic development and marine conservation". Ocean & Coastal Management. 76: 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2013.02.007. ISSN 0964-5691.