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Lists of Roman Emperors

Title	Type	Date	Author	Start	End	Excerpt
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire	Book	1776	Edward Gibbon	Augustus	Constantine XI	"The entire series of Roman Emperors, from the first of the Cesars to the last of the Constantines, extends above fifteen hundred years: and the term of dominion unbroken by foreign conquest, surpasses the measure of ancient monarchies; the Assyrians or Medes, the successors of Cyrus, or those of Alexander." See also the wikipedia article Outline of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
A History of the Roman Emperors	Book	1825	Charles Abraham Elton	Augustus (28 BC)	Constantine XI (1453)	"Chronological List of Emperors"
The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC-AD 476	Book	1997	Michael Grant	31 BC	AD 476	Subtitle of the book: "the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC-AD 476"
From Rome to Byzantium: The fifth century AD	Book	1998	Michael Grant	Augustus (31 BC)	Anastasius I (518)	Subtitle of the book: "The fifth century AD".
The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World	Book	2001	John Boardman, Jasper Griffin, Oswyn Murray		1453	"The Late Empire" [...] "1453 Conquest of Constantinople by the Turks and end of the Eastern Roman Empire"
Who's who in the Roman World	Book	2002	John Hazel	Augustus (27 BC)	Jovian (364)	"Appendix II: List of the Roman Emperors"
The Government of the Roman Empire: A Sourcebook	Book	2002	Barbara Levick	Octavian (31 BC)	M. Aurelius Carinus (285)	Description: "This book reveals how an empire that stretched from Glasgow to Aswan in Egypt could be ruled from a single city and still survive more than a thousand years."
The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans	Book	2002	Donald M. Nicol	Augustus	Constantine XI	The subtitle of the book: "Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans". From the preface: "Constantine Palaiologos was the last emperor of Constantinople, the New Rome. He was killed defending his city against the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turkish conquest completed the transformation of the Christian Byzantine Empire into the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Constantine's death marked the end of an institution that traced its origins back to the reign of Constantine the Great in the fourth century, or indeed back to Augustus, the first Roman Emperor."
The Oxford History of Byzantium	Book	2002	Cyril Mango	Constantine I	Constantine XI	"Byzantium, then, is a term of convenience when it is not a term of inconvenience. On any reasonable definition Byzantium must be seen as the direct continuation of the Roman empire in the eastern half of the Mediterranean basin, i.e. that part of the Roman Empire that was Hellenistic in its culture and language. Being a continuation, it had no beginning, although a number of symbolic dates have been advanced as marking that elusive birthday: the accession of Dioclecian (AD 284), the foundation of Constantinople (324) or its ceremonial inauguration (330), the adoption of Christianity as the all but exclusive religion of the empire (c.380), the division of the empire into separately ruled eastern and western halves (395), the abolition of the western empire (476), even the accession of Leo III (716), the last being still enshrined in The Cambridge Medieval History. To all of these dates more or less cogent objections have been raised. That, however, does not solve a problem that probably owes more to a feeling than to the kind of 'objective' criteria that are supposed to underpin historical periodization."
The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Roman Empire	Book	2002	Eric Nelson	Augustus	1453	Chapter 1 includes a subsection called "The Byzantine Period (565-1453)", which states "People don't often think of the Byzantine culture as 'Roman'. Greek, not Latin, was the language of the realm and the Orthodox Church developed apart from the Latin Roman Catholic Church. Nevertheless, the culture we know as Byzantine was the continuation of the eastern Roman Empire and saw itself in that light. Citizens called themselves Romaioi (Romans) and recognized their emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor in the 'New Rome', Constantinople."
Metropolitan Museum of Art	Website	October 2004	Department of Greek and Roman Art	Augustus (27 BC)	Anastasius I (518)	Titled "List of Rulers of the Roman Empire". It includes sections labeled "Eastern Roman Empire", and "Eastern Roman Empire (after death of Jovian)".
A Pocket Dictionary of Roman Emperors	Book	2006	Paul Roberts	Augustus (27 BC)	Romulus Augustulus (476)	From page 48: "German kings ruled Italy and the remains of the western empire withered away. The only emperor now was in Constantinople, the capital of the eastern (Byzantine) empire, which lasted until AD 1453."
A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284-641: The Transformation of the Ancient World	Book	2006	Stephen Mitchell	Diocletian	Heraclius	From the description: "This book presents a historical study of the Roman Empire in Late Antiquity from the accession of the emperor Diocletian 284 to the death of the emperor Heraclius in 641."
How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower	Book	2009	Adrian Keith Goldsworthy	third century	sixth century	"Similarly I have made no real use of the modern terms 'Byzantium' and 'Byzantine', and the emperors who ruled from Constantinople are referred to as Roman even when they no longer controlled Italy and Rome itself. This was how they knew themselves."
Ancient History Encyclopedia	Website	accessed 2020	founded in 2009 by Jan van der Crabben	Augustus (27 BC)	Constantine I (337)	Titled "Roman Emperor Timeline" and ends with Constantine. Clicking on the link to "Roman Emperor", it starts "Roman emperors ruled over the Imperial Roman Empire starting with Augustus from 27 BCE and continuing in the Western Roman Empire until the late 5th century CE and in the Eastern Roman Empire up to the mid-15th century CE."
The Complete Roman Emperor: Imperial Life at Court and on Campaign	Book	2010	Michael Sommer	Augustus	Romulus Augustulus	From the book description: "The eighty-five emperors who ruled Rome for five centuries are among the most famous and notorious leaders in history."
The Ruin of the Roman Empire	Book	2011	James J O'Donnell	Augustus (31 BC)	Constantine XI (641)	"A simplified table. For fuller information, see the website De Imperatoribus Romanis (http://www.roman-emperors.org), in which this is based."
From Rome to Byzantium AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome	Book	2013	A. D. Lee	Constantine I (306)	Heraclius (641)	"Roman emperors during late antiquity".
Emperors of Rome: The Story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the Last Emperor	Book	2016	David Potter	Augustus (29 BC)	Romulus Augustulus (476)	Chapter title: "Final Decline and Fall: The collapse of the Western Empire (AD 411-476)".
The Byzantine Empire 717-1453	Book	2018	George Finlay	Leo the Isaurian	Constantine XI	"The Eastern Roman Empire, thus reformed, is called by modern historians the Byzantine Empire; and the term is well devised to mark the changes effected in the government, after the extinction of the last traces of the military monarchy of ancient Rome. The social conditions of the inhabitants of the Eastern Empire had already undergone a considerable change during the century which elapsed from the accession of Heraclius to that of Leo, from the influence of causes to be noticed in the following pages; and this change in society created a new phase in the Roman empire. The gradual process of this change has led some writers to date the commencement of the Byzantine Empire as the reigns of Zeno and Anastasius, and others to descend so late as the times of Maurice and Heraclius. But as the Byzantine Empire was only a continuation of the Roman government under a reformed system, it seems most correct to date its commencement from the period when the new social and political modifications produced a visible effect on the fate of the Eastern Empire. This period is marked by the accession of Leo the Isaurian."
The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome	Book	2019	Maxwell Craven	Julius Caesar (49 BC)	Maurice (and Theodosius) (602)	From Contents: "VIII The Eastern Empire to 602"; From the Preface: "To understand how this might work in the context of the emperors of Rome from the triumph of Julius Caesar in 49BC to the death (say) of Mauricius (commonly Maurice) in 602, , it is necessary to provide, in the form of an introduction, how the system arose and how it worked."; From the Introduction: "The Roman Empire lasted an astonishingly long time, in the west five centuries, with almost a further millennium in the east, falling after two centuries of terminal decline to the Moslem Ottoman Turks in 1453."
Basileus: History of the Byzantine Emperors 284–1453	Book	2019	Weston Barnes	Diocletian (284)	Constantine XI Paleologus Dragases (1453)	Subtitle of the book: "History of the Byzantine Emperors 284–1453".
Encyclopaedia Britannica	Website	accessed 2020	Naomi Blumberg	Augustus (31 BC)	Zeno (491)	Titled "List of Roman emperors" and ends with Zeno.
ostia-antica.org	Website	accessed 2020		Augustus (27 BC)	Maurice (602)	The list is divided into two sections, labeled "Emperors from Augustus to Constantine" and "Emperors from Diocletian to Romulus" (but which also includes emperors up to Maurice).
Livius	Website	accessed 2020	Jona Lendering	Julius Caesar(48 BC)	Constans II (668)	The "List of Byzantine Emperors" page is presented as a subcategory of the "List of Roman Emperors" page.
De Imperatorobus Romanis	Website	Updated: 25 February 2020	Richard D. Weigel, and others	Augustus (31 BC)	Constantine XI (1453)	List title: "The Imperial Index: The Rulers of the Roman Empire From Augustus to Constantine XI Palaeologus". From the homepage: "DIR is an on-line encyclopedia on the rulers of the Roman empire from Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) to Constantine XI Palaeologus (1449-1453). The encyclopedia consists of (1) an index of all the emperors who ruled during the empire's 1500 years, (2) a growing number of biographical essays on the individual emperors, (3) family trees ("stemmata") of important imperial dynasties, (4) an index of significant battles in the empire's history, (5) a growing number of capsule descriptions and maps of these battles, and (6) maps of the empire at different times. Wherever possible, these materials are cross-referenced by live links. These contents are supplemented by an ancient and medieval atlas, a link to a virtual catalog of Roman coins, and other recommended links to related sites. The contents of DIR have been prepared by scholars but are meant to be accessible to non-specialists as well. They have been peer- reviewed for quality and accuracy before publication on this site."

misc.

"In contrast to domed tombs, tomb towers had plain or simple exteriors enlivened by decorative bands or panels. The earliest surviving example, the GUNBAD-I QABUS [...] A flanged brick cylinder with a conical roof ..." page 90 https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC Title Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set Volume 2 of Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture, Jonathan M. Bloom, ISBN 019530991X, 9780195309911 Editors Jonathan Bloom, Sheila S. Blair, Sheila Blair Edition illustrated Publisher OUP USA, 2009 ISBN 019530991X, 9780195309911

"TERMINOLOGY AND CONCEPTS : FALSE OR TRUE DOMES? In the literature the Mycenaean cupola is called a false dome, a pseudocupola, or even a false vault. The agreement among scholars that the Mycenaean architects did not know the principle of the cupola and were not able to build true domes, is total." page 170 http://www.arkeologiskasamfundet.se/csa/Dokument/Volumes/csa_vol_6_1998/csa_vol_6_1998_s167-184_santillo-fritzell.pdf Giants or Geniuses? Monumental Building at Mycenae Barbro Santillo Frizell

"Vault. [...] Domical vault. A dome rising direct on a square or polygonal base, the curved surfaces separated by groins. See Dome. In America called a cloister vault." page 462 https://books.google.com/books?id=i_M3AQAAIAAJ Title The Penguin dictionary of architecture Penguin reference books Authors John Fleming, Hugh Honour, Nikolaus Pevsner Contributors Hugh Honour, Nikolaus Pevsner Edition 4, illustrated, reprint Publisher Penguin Books, 1991 Original from the University of California Digitized Aug 31, 2010 ISBN 0140512411, 9780140512410

"Architectural history books distinguish between Roman architecture and Byzantine architecture. It is intended to argue that this does not apply to one common feature, the dome, as there was a continued development in architectural form and symbolism of the dome between the two periods. As David Talbot Rice commented, the most famous of the Byzantine churches, Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, was not the beginning of a new dome tradition in Byzantine architecture but the culmination of the soaring vault architecture of the Roman West but in brick and not concrete. What did distinguish the Byzantine dome from the Roman was function, its use almost entirely in religious structures, the commemorative and the congregational churches, with a few utility building exceptions, such as in a Byzantine bath or the refectory or kitchen in a monastery." The Dome in Byzantine Church Architecture PATRICIOS Nicholas https://doi.org/10.12681/byzsym.20382

Hazel Dodge Chapter VIII endnotes (189/248)

8. Strzygowski J. (1901); Orient Oder Rom, Leipzig.

Creswell K. A. C. (1932, P. 450-71; Early Muslim Architecture, Pts. I and III Oxford.

Rivoira G. T. (1925)v passimo; Roman Architecture, London (English Translation by G. Rushforth).

9. Creswell (1932)v po 450-71;. 10. Mainstone (1975)t p. 331o 11. Krautheimer (1979)9 p. 542o 12. Macdonald (1982)p p. 66. These examples have been chosen because they survive intact. 13. Vitot V. xo S. I eaeque quam latae fuerinty tantam altitudinem habeant ad unam curvatorum hemishaeriit,

Definitions

"Dome, a term applied to a covering of the whole or part of a building: the word dome is strictly applied to the external part of the spherical or polygonal roof, and cupola to the internal part" [...] "Dome or cupola, a roof, the base of which is a circle, an ellipsis, or a polygon, and its vertical section a curve line, concave towards the interior. Hence domes are called circular, elliptical, or polygonal, according to the figure of the base. The most usual form for a dome is the spherical, in which case its plan is a circle, the section a segment of a circle. The top of a large dome is often finished with a lantern, which is supported by the framing of the dome. The interior and exterior forms of a dome are not often alike, and in the space between, a staircase to the lantern is generally made. According to the space left between the external and internal domes, the framing must be designed. Sometimes the framing may be trussed with ties across the opening; but often the interior dome rises so high that ties cannot be inserted. Accordingly, the construction of domes may be divided into two cases: viz. domes with horizontal ties, and those not having such ties." page 149 https://books.google.com/books?id=BE9NAAAAYAAJ Title Rudimentary Dictionary of Terms Used in Architecture, Civil, Architecture, Naval, Building and Construction, Early and Ecclesiastical Art, Engineering, Civil, Engineering, Mechanical, Fine Art, Mining, Surveying, Etc: To which are Added Explanatory Observations on Numerous Subjects ..., Volumes 1-2 Author John Weale Publisher J. Weale, 1850 Original from the University of Virginia

"Dome.-An arched or vaulted roof, springing from a polygonal, circular or elliptic plan. When the base is circular, it is termed a cupola; when a polygon it is a polygonal dome; and when an ellipsis an elliptic dome, the central point in the curved surface is called the pole." page 57 https://books.google.com/books?id=ibNCAQAAMAAJ Title A Dictionary of Terms Used in Architecture and Building Publisher Industrial publication Company, 1913 Original from University of California, Berkeley

"Architectural historians who deal with the history of the dome have been baffled and sometimes led astray by the peculiar vague-ness of some of the literary passages which in some cases form the only evidence for the existence of certain domes or of certain types of domes. When the ancient authors mention a dome, they often call it a sphaira or a sphairion.2 While inexact, in the geometrical sense, this is a perfectly comprehensible and justifiable method of describing an architectural element whose most prominent character- istic is its sphericity; and that the ancient writers were aware of the inexactitude, but also aware of the usefulness of the graphic image, is suggested by Procopius' reference to the main dome of the Church of the Apostles at Constantinople as rTo abatpot&6s, which might be translated "the sphere-like structure."" page 23 "Choricius, to the writer's present knowledge, is the only writer of this period who is careful enough to note that a dome or a semi-dome is a hollow spherical form." page 25 "Naturally, if one wished to describe a dome vividly, the most arresting feature of its appearance was its sphericity, and everybody knew that if you called a dome a sphaira, you called it this because it resembled a sphaira; and it was understood that a dome was not a sphaira in the geometrical sense. This is of course what one would expect, and the phenomenon is by no means confined to post-classical Greek literature." page 26 On Some Post-Classical Greek Architectural Terms Author(s): Glanville Downey Source: Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association , 1946, Vol. 77 (1946), pp. 22-34 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.com/stable/283440

"Choricius is also more exact than many writers in his references to spherical domes. A central dome is called "a hollow sphere divided equally" (Laud. Marc., i, 19), and an apsidal semidome is "the fourth part of a hollow sphere" (ibid., 27). Choricius likewise gives a very precise description of the springing of the central dome in the same church (ibid., 38). Most writers, when calling a dome a "sphere" (which is the commonest term) do not trouble to note that it is a hollow sphere, nor do they, like Choricius, call a dome a "half-sphere" and a semi-dome a "quarter-sphere"; see G. Downey, "On Some Post-Classical Greek Architectural Terms," Trans, of the Amer. Philol. Assoc,, LXXVII, 1946, 22-54." page 156 https://books.google.com/books?id=YXJ42i1ZWjkC APPENDIX DESCRIPTION OF THE CHURCH OF S. STEPHEN AT GAZA BY CHORICIUS, SECTIONS 37-46 TRANSLATION AND NOTES BY G. DOWNEY Footnote 9 in "The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas" by E. Baldwin Smith, 1950, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY, ISBN 0-691-00304-1

"To the naive eye of men uninterested in construction, the dome, it must be realized, was first of all a shape and then an idea. As a shape (which antedated the beginnings of masonry construction), It was the memorable feature of an ancient, ancestral house. It is still a shape visualized and described by such terms as hemisphere, beehive, onion, melon, and bulbous. In ancient times it was thought of as a tholos, pine cone, omphalos, helmet, tegurium, kubba, kalube, maphalia, vihdra, parasol, amalaka tree, cosmic egg, and heavenly bowl. While the modern terms are purely descriptive, the ancient imagery both preserved some memory of the origin of the domical shape and conveyed something of the ancestral beliefs and supernatural meanings associated with its form." page 5 in "The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas" by E. Baldwin Smith, 1950, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY, ISBN 0-691-00304-1

"The domical shape must be distinguished from domical vaulting because the dome, both as idea and as method of roofing, originated in pliable materials upon a primitive shelter and was later preserved, venerated, and translated into more permanent materials, largely for symbolic and traditional reasons. 1. At the primitive level the most prevalent and usually the earliest type of constructed shelter, whether a tent, pit house, earth lodge, or thatched cabin, was more or less circular in plan and covered by necessity with a curved roof. Therefore, in many parts of the ancient world the domical shape became habitually associated in men's memories with a central type of structure which was venerated as a tribal and ancestral shelter, a cosmic symbol, a house of appearances and a ritualistic abode. 2. Hence many widely separate cultures, whose architecture evolved from primitive methods of construction, had some tradition of an ancient and revered shelter which was distinguished by a curved roof, usually more or less domical in appearance, but sometimes hoop-shaped or conical." page 6 in "The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas" by E. Baldwin Smith, 1950, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY, ISBN 0-691-00304-1

"The most primitive and natural shape, derived directly from a round hut made of pliable materials tied together at the top and covered with leaves, skins or thatch, was the pointed and slightly bulbous dome which is so common today among the backward tribes of Nubia and Africa (Fig. 93). This type of dome, resembling a truncated pine cone or beehive, is preserved in the tholos tombs of the Mediterranean (Fig. 63), the rock-cut tombs of Etruria and Sicily (Figs. 64, 65), in the Syrian qubab huts (Fig. 88), on the tomb of Bizzos (Fig. 61) and on many of the early Islamic mosques (Figs. 38-43). To distinguish this shape of dome from the geometric cone we will call it conoid, because of its recognized likeness to the actual pine cone. Other types of domical shapes, flatter and unpointed, were derived from the tent and preserved as tabernacles, ciboria and baldachins (Figs. 144-151). These tent forms, however, could be puffed-up and bulbous owing to the light framework of the roof, as is shown by the celestial baldachin above the great altar of Zeus at Pergamum (Fig. 106) and the Parthian dome among the reliefs of the arch of Septimius Severus at Rome (Fig. 228). There were also in Syria and other parts of the Roman Empire sacred rustic shelters whose ritualistic and domical coverings sometimes had an outward curving flange at the bottom of the dome as the thatch was bent out to form an overhang (Figs. 111-117). In other examples the curve of their light domical roof was broken by the horizontal bindings which held the thatch in place (Fig. 10). The hemispherical shape, which is today so commonly associated with the dome, undoubtedly acquired its geometric curve largely from the theoretical interests of the Greek mathematicians and the practical considerations of Roman mechanics. This Roman standardization of the domical shape, which made It easier to construct accurately in brick, stone and concrete, became the customary form of the antique domical vault." pages 8-9 in "The Dome: A Study in the History of Ideas" by E. Baldwin Smith, 1950, PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS, PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY, ISBN 0-691-00304-1

"Dome: A hemispherical structure of masonry; A vaulted construction spanning a circular or polygonal area, wherein all sides curve upward and inward toward a single high point." page 309 https://books.google.com/books?id=XTHC6c_mCi0C Title The Construction of Gothic Cathedrals: A Study of Medieval Vault Erection Phoenix book Author John Fitchen Edition illustrated, reprint, annotated Publisher University of Chicago Press, 1981 ISBN 0226252035, 9780226252032

"Domes have been the subject of controversy for more than a century. The origins of dome construction and the ways in which it was applied have both been heatedly debated In the light of this, two questions arise. Have some scholars made too much of these matters, thereby creating unnecessary problems and a false controversy? And was there really any 'problem' as regards the dome and the square bay? The underlying issue, however, is that of terminology. Respected scholars have plunged into the debate, only to confuse the situation further by the omission of an adequate definition of terms. Where definitions are given, they are either inconsistent through the text, or do not correspond to those in general use. This leads to confusion, misunderstanding and 'problems with domes'. One thing that most scholars agree upon is that the dome is a kind of vault. R. J. Mainstone defines a dome as "A spanning space-enclosing structural element circular in plan and commonly hemispherical or nearly so in total form". R. Krautheimer defines it as "a hemispherical vault" and the Penguin Dictionary of Architecture gives the following definition "A vault of even curvature erected on a circular base. The section can be segmental, semicircular, pointed or bulbous". Thus it emerges that the term 'dome' is non-specific, a blanket-word to describe an hemispherical or similar spanning element. When such a vault is placed on a circular wall, as in the Pantheon in Rome, the 'Temple of Mercury' at Bala or the Tor de'Schiavi on the Via Praenestina, there is little disagreement or variation in the term applied to the roofing element; it is a dome. Problems start to occur in recent critical literature when such an element is placed over an octagonal, polygonal or square bay." [...] "Dome A vault of usually even curvature erected on a circular base whose elements are set radially rather than corbelled. The profile can vary. The term can be applied in a general way to other domical forms (Such as the domical and sail vault)". Hazel Dodge, "Building materials and techniques in the Eastern Mediterranean from the Hellenistic period to the fourth century AD", Thesis submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, pages 265-266, 277. 1984 https://theses.ncl.ac.uk/jspui/handle/10443/868

"Dome A curved vault that is erected on a circular base and that is semicircular, pointed, or bulbous in section. If raised over a square or polygonal base transitional squinches or pendentives must be inserted at the corners of the base to transform it into a near circle." page 583 https://books.google.com/books?id=VHQYHgn3tTYC Title Architecture, from Prehistory to Post-modernism: The Western Tradition Authors Marvin Trachtenberg, Isabelle Hyman Edition illustrated Publisher H.N. Abrams, 1986 Original from University of Minnesota Digitized Feb 16, 2010 ISBN 0810910772, 9780810910775

"Dome. Vault of even curvature on a circular base. The section can be segmental, semicircular, pointed, or bulbous. If a dome is to be erected on a square base, members must be interpolated at the corners to mediate between the square and the circle. They can be pendentives of squinches. A pendentive is a spherical triangle; its curvature is that of a dome whose diameter is the diagonal is the diagonal of the initial square. The triangle is carried to the height which allows the erection on its top horizontal of the dome proper. A squinch is either an arch or arches of increasing radius projecting one in front of the other, or horizontal arches projecting in the same manner. If squinches are placed in the corners of the square and enough arches are erected on them they will result in a suitable base-line for the dome. In all these cases the dome will have the diameter of the length of one side of the square. It can be placed direct on the circular base-line, when this is achieved, or a drum, usually with windows, can be interpolated. If the dome has no drum and is segmental, it is called a saucer dome. If it has no drum and is semicircular, it is called a calotte. Another method of developing a dome out of a square is to take the diagonal of the square as the diameter of the dome. In this case the dome starts as if by pendentives, but their curvature is then continued without any break. Such domes are called sail vaults, because they resemble a sail with the four corners fixed and the wind blowing into it. A domical vault is not a dome proper. If on a square base, four webs (cells) rise to a point separated by groins (see vault). The same can be done on a polygonal base. An umbrella, parachute, pumpkin or melon dome is a dome on a circular base, but also divided into individual webs, each of which, however, has a base-line curved segmentally in plan and curved in elevation.", "The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture", pages 126-127. Title The Penguin dictionary of architecture Penguin reference books Authors John Fleming, Hugh Honour, Nikolaus Pevsner Contributors Hugh Honour, Nikolaus Pevsner Edition 4, illustrated, reprint Publisher Penguin Books, 1991 Original from the University of California Digitized Aug 31, 2010 ISBN 0140512411, 9780140512410

"A hemispherical vault supported by either a circular wall or, over a square space, by squinches or pendentives placed in the corners, the former transforming the square into an octagon, the latter into a circle.", Richard Krautheimer, Slobodan Ćurčić, "Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture", page 518. [2] Title Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture Volume 24 of Pelican history of art THE YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS PELI Yale University Press Pelican history of art, ISSN 0553-4755 Authors Richard Krautheimer, Slobodan Ćurčić Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher Yale University Press, 1992 ISBN 0300052944, 9780300052947

"dome, a hemispherical roof form." page 56 https://books.google.com/books?id=YIhZQkLdV5gC Title Dictionary of Architecture Author Henry H. Saylor Edition reprint Publisher John Wiley & Sons, 1994 ISBN 0471756016, 9780471756019

"A dome is a rounded vault forming a roof over a large interior space. [...] The rounded vault of the dome can take many forms. Perhaps the simplest of these is a shell of revolution, in which every ach horizontal section is circular; an egg in an egg-cup is a shell of this kind." page https://books.google.com/books?id=IvuIvzwGClwC itle The Stone Skeleton: Structural Engineering of Masonry Architecture Author Jacques Heyman Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher Cambridge University Press, 1997 ISBN 0521629632, 9780521629638

"Dome, in architecture, hemispherical structure evolved from the arch, usually forming a ceiling or roof.", The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Encyclopaedia Britannica", "Dome". [3] Article added to new online database. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Jul 20, 1998

"A vault of double curvature, both curves being convex upwards. Most domes are portions of a sphere; however, it is possible to have a dome of non-spherical curvature on a circular plan, or to have a dome on a non-circular plan, such as an ellipse, an oval or a rectangle." page 73 https://books.google.com/books?id=Jgm6J9UOB3MC Title Dictionary of Architectural and Building Technology Authors Henry J. Cowan, Peter Smith, Peter R. Smith, José Carlos Damski Editors Henry J. Cowan, Peter Smith Edition illustrated Publisher Taylor & Francis, 1998 ISBN 0419222804, 9780419222804

"Architecturally, the dome may be seen not only as a structure but also as shelter, spatial enclosure, silhouette, or symbolic form with divers connotations stemming from past uses. To review all these aspects of its history would be impossible in a brief survey. [...] Structurally, I take the term dome to denote, as it normally does, a doubly curved form supported from below and acting primarily in arching compression as it spans the space it encloses.", Roland Mainstone, "Domes: A Structural Overview", in "Domes 2000: Papers from the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain", page 1.

"With iron, which lends itself to a wide variety of structural gymnastics, it is particularly important to define what is meant by the word 'dome'. The dome as considered here is in its purest form, that is with a regular figure, circular, elliptical or multi-faceted in plan, and a symmetrical profile (generally curved). Domed ends to barrel-shaped roofs or complex domes cut into by other roofs are excluded and so, for brevity, are structures never actually built.", James Sutherland, "19th-Century Iron and Glass Domes", in "Domes 2000: Papers from the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain", page 111.

"In the mind of an engineer a dome is structure with a very distinct behavior. It is a synclastically-curved, three dimensional surface, primarily stressed in compression under its own weight and applied loading, and made of a material resistant to such forces (usually masonry or some form of concrete). Circumferential tension forces that may occur at the base of a dome are usually resisted by a tension ring. However, a dictionary definition of the word dome may be less precise. For instance, in a typical concise dictionary a dome is defined as: -

'dome, n., & v.t.l. Stately building, mansion, (poet.); rounded vault as roof, with circular, elliptical or polygonal base, large cupola; natural vault, canopy, (of sky, trees, etc.); rounded summit of hill etc,; hence domed, domic(al), dome-like, domy. 2. v.t. Cover with, shape as, dome. [F. f. It. duomo cathedral, dome, (& direct) f. L domus house]'

In the past the stately building often had a masonry dome whereas, due to the rapid expansion in structural systems that have become available in the 20th century, this is now less likely to be the case. This has led to many modern large-span structures being described as domes when their primary load-bearing system does not exactly accord with the engineering definition. Some actually work almost entirely in tension, although they still may be more or less dome-shaped (for example the Millenium Dome in Greenwich). This paper, therefore, addresses the conflict that now exists between the precise engineering and more general dictionary definitions of the term dome by reviewing the development of various types of lightweight and tensile domes during the 20th century." [...] "Although the name 'dome' was appropriately applied (in the strict engineering sense) to historical long-span structures of synclastic form, working in compression and using heavy materials with little tensile strength, this is not correct for many of the new lightweight structural systems. However, the name 'dome' in common usage has come to refer to almost any long-span roofing system. The answer, therefore, to the question posed in the title of this paper is "It depends!". A synclastic surface acting predominantly in compression is clearly a dome by name, by form and by engineering definition, whilst a structure acting mainly in tension (such as the Georgia Dome) is a dome in name alone. Between these extremes there are many shades of distinction.", John Chilton, "When is a dome not a dome? - 20th-century lightweight and tensile domes", in "Domes 2000: Papers from the Annual Symposium of the Society of Architectural Historians of Great Britain", pages 131, 143.

"Dome: spherical-shaped vault, usually in the form of a hemisphere over a round floor plan.", Norbert Nussbaum, "German Gothic Church Architecture", page 260. [4] Title German Gothic Church Architecture Author Norbert Nussbaum Translated by Scott Kleager Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher Yale University Press, 2000 ISBN 0300083211, 9780300083217

"A dome is a convex rounded roof covering the whole or a part of a building with a base on the horizontal plane which is circular, elliptical or polygonal. In vertical section the dome may be hemispherical, partly elliptical, saucer-shaped, or formed like a bulb (the so-called onion domes to be seen in eastern Europe).", Ian McNeil, "An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology", page 879. [5] Title An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology Routledge Companion Encyclopedias Editor Ian McNeil Edition revised Publisher Taylor & Francis, 2002 ISBN 0203192117, 9780203192115

"Dome Circular vaulted construction used as a means of roofing. First used in much of the Middle East and North Africa whence it spread to other parts of the Islamic world, because of its distinctive form the dome has, like the minaret, become a symbol of Islamic architecture." page 68 https://books.google.com/books?id=eIaEAgAAQBAJ Title Dictionary of Islamic Architecture Author Andrew Petersen Publisher Routledge, 2002 ISBN 1134613660, 9781134613663

"A domical vault is not a true dome. A dome is a vault with a segmental, semicircular, bulbous, or pointed section rising from a circular base.", James Stevens Curl, "Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms", page 220. [6] Title Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms Author James Stevens Curl Edition illustrated, reprint, reissue Publisher W. W. Norton & Company, 2003 ISBN 0393731197, 9780393731194

"Dome [...] 1. A construction in the form of a spherical cap realized on a circular or polygonal plan. 2. The internal surface of a dome. Syn. with CUPOLA. 3. A surface of revolution generated by any meridian curve turning around a vertical axis. Horizontal sections are circular rings and the dome picks up on its bearings by a circular belt. 4. Syn, with CAVITY; OPEN; POT-HOLE". page 378 https://books.google.com/books?id=nBdX0BGBEvwC Title Dictionary of Civil Engineering: English-French Editor Jean-Paul Kurtz Edition illustrated Publisher Springer Science & Business Media, 2004 ISBN 0306483173, 9780306483172

"Dome 1. A curved roof structure spanning an area; often hemispherical in shape. 2. A square prefabricated pan form; used in two-way joist (waffle) concrete floor construction. 3. A vault substantially hemispherical in shape, but sometimes slightly pointed or bulbous; a ceiling of similar form. Also see geodesic dome and saucer dome." page 319 https://books.google.com/books?newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&id=Ui_sxc6S2XUC Title Dictionary of Architecture and Construction McGraw Hill professional Author Cyril M. Harris Edition 4 Publisher McGraw Hill Professional, 2005 ISBN 0071589015, 9780071589017

"Domes ~ these are double curvature shells that can be rotationally formed by any curved geometrical plane figure rotating about a central vertical axis. Translation domes are formed by a curved line moving over another curved line whereas pendentive domes are formed by inscribing within the base circle a regular polygon and vertical planes through the true hemispherical dome." page 486 https://books.google.com/books?id=WwpnZirHGA4C Title Building Construction Handbook Building Construction Handbook Series EngineeringPro collection Authors R. Chudley, Roger Greeno Edition illustrated Publisher Routledge, 2006 ISBN 0750668229, 9780750668224

"A vaulted structure having a circular or polygonal plan and usually the form of a portion of a sphere, so constructed so as to exert an equal thrust in all directions.", Francis D. K. Ching, Mark Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash, "A Global History of Architecture", page 761. [7] Title A Global History of Architecture Authors Francis D. K. Ching, Mark Jarzombek, Vikramaditya Prakash Edition illustrated Publisher J. Wiley & Sons, 2007 Original from the University of Michigan Digitized Nov 12, 2007 ISBN 0471268925, 9780471268925

"Dome 1 a hollow, flattened or raised hemispherical roof structure, often of masonry, which rests on a circular, square, or polygonal base. See below. See types of dome illustration. See classical temple illustration. bulbous dome, see onion dome. drum dome. glass dome. half dome. melon dome, see umbrella dome. onion dome. parachute dome, see umbrella dome. pendentive dome. pumpkin dome, see umbrella dome. sail dome, sail vault. saucer dome. semi dome, see half dome. umbrella dome. 2 see domelight." page 118 https://books.google.com/books?id=r4R2Sl_hbTwC Title Dictionary of Architecture and Building Construction Authors Nikolas Davies, Erkki Jokiniemi Edition illustrated Publisher Routledge, 2008 ISBN 0750685026, 9780750685023

"A concave structural element, erected on a circular base, and usually the shape of a semi-sphere. A dome has a curved surface and functions much like an arch, but provides support in all directions. Larger domes often have two or even three layers: the top and bottom are decorative, while the centre layer is structural and supports the other two. Domes can be segmental, semicircular, pointed or bulbous." page 41 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aml4RjvWaB4C Title The Visual Dictionary of Architecture An AVA book Architecture Series Visual Dictionaries Authors Gavin Ambrose, Paul Harris, Sally Stone Edition illustrated Publisher AVA Publishing, 2008 ISBN 294037354X, 9782940373543

"Dome (architecture), a roof or vault, usually hemispherical in form.", Microsoft Encarta, "Dome (architecture)". [8] 4/11/2009

"Dome [Lat. domus: "house"]. Rounded vault covering an interior space." page 18 https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC Title Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set Volume 2 of Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture, Jonathan M. Bloom, ISBN 019530991X, 9780195309911 Editors Jonathan Bloom, Sheila S. Blair, Sheila Blair Edition illustrated Publisher OUP USA, 2009 ISBN 019530991X, 9780195309911

"A dome is a structural element conventionally used to cover large spaces. It is defined as an arch that has been rotated around its vertical axis." page 76 https://books.google.com/books?id=u1FRM12op_IC Title The Visual Dictionary of Interior Architecture and Design Reference Series Visual Dictionaries Authors Michael Coates, Graeme Brooker, Sally Stone Edition illustrated Publisher AVA Publishing, 2009 ISBN 2940373809, 9782940373802

"The absence of a common language is one of the reasons why nowadays there is a very big gap between the Architect and the Engineer. The introduction of new materials and techniques during the Industrial Revolution and the born of the first polytechnics in the 18th century, led to a different cultural approach to the design causing the born of different languages between Architects and Engineers. Nowadays, with the widespread of very complicated works of the architecture there is a huge need to bridge the gap between Architects and Engineers. In this context, focusing the attention on masonry domes, this paper aims at highlighting that Load Path Method seems to open new prospects in the search for a common language between engineers and architects to give voice, in harmony and in a single design, to formal, aesthetical, functional and structural aspects. According to LPM, a dome can be seen as a system of meridian arches joined by the parallel circles. The arches draw the paths of the vertical loads while the parallel circles draw the paths of the unbalanced thrusts. In fact, differently from the arches, in dome the equilibrium of the thrusts in every node is always possible because of the presence of the parallels." page 519 https://books.google.com/books?id=EfLRBQAAQBAJ chapter Load path method in the interpretation of dome behavior, by F. Palmisano & A. Totaro Title Structures & Architecture Editor Paulo J. da Sousa Cruz Publisher CRC Press, 2010 ISBN 1439862974, 9781439862971

"dome A *vault of even curvature over a circular base; the section can be segmental, semicircular, pointed, or bulbous. If a vault is erected over a square base, *squinches or *pendentives must be inserted at the corners to connect the dome to the base." page 79 https://books.google.com/books?id=vyiiW3uL49sC Title The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms Oxford Paperback Reference Author Michael Clarke Editor Michael Clarke Edition illustrated, reprint Publisher OUP Oxford, 2010 ISBN 0199569924, 9780199569922

"A vaulted structure having a circular plan and usually the form of a portion of a sphere, so constructed as to exert an equal thrust in all directions.", Francis D. K. Ching, "Visual Dictionary of Architecture", page 62. [9] Title A Visual Dictionary of Architecture Author Francis D. K. Ching Edition 2, illustrated Publisher John Wiley & Sons, 2011 ISBN 1118160495, 9781118160497

"circular convex structure that covers an interior space; sometimes mounted on a drum; semicircular domes often cover apses and can also act as buttresses." page 15 [10] Title The New York Times Guide to Essential Knowledge: A Desk Reference for the Curious Mind Author The New York Times Edition illustrated, revised Publisher Macmillan, 2011 ISBN 0312643020, 9780312643027

"Rounded vault covering an interior space. A very small dome roof, for example a lantern mounted on the eye of a dome proper (e.g. St Paul's Cathedral, London), is known as a cupola. In Italian cupola is used for a monumental dome. [...] A dome can either be composed of curved segments or be a shell of revolution. The dome at Florence Cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) is segmental, octangular at every section. A shell of revolution is generated by rotating an arch about a vertical central axis. To produce a hemispherical surface the arch will be semicircular, but and shape of arch, similarly rotated, will give rise to a shell of revolution; and every horizontal cross-section is still circular. The simplest form of dome is that of such a shell of revolution: for example, the inner masonry dome of St Paul's Cathedral is roughly hemispherical, and has an open eye, while the main dome is conical; but both are shells of revolution, as is the surface of the timber outer dome. A dome can have either a single or a double shell." Colum Hourihane, "The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture, Volume 2", page 301. https://books.google.com/books?id=FtlMAgAAQBAJ Title The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture, Volume 2 The Grove Encyclopedia of Medieval Art and Architecture, Colum Hourihane Editor Colum Hourihane Contributor Colum Hourihane Edition illustrated Publisher OUP USA, 2012 ISBN 0195395360, 9780195395365

"Dome, a cupola; the term is derived from the Italian duomo, a cathedral, the custom of erecting cupolas on those buildings having been so prevalent that the name dome has, in the French and English languages, been transferred from the church to this kind of roof [See Cupola.]" page 97 "Cupola (Ital.), a concave ceiling, either hemispherical or of any other curve, covering a circular or polygonal area; also a roof, the exterior of which is either one of these forms, usually called a dome, and in Latin tholus." page 90 https://books.google.com/books?id=ai_DAgAAQBAJ Title A Concise Dictionary of Architectural Terms Dover Architecture Author John Henry Parker Publisher Courier Corporation, 2012 ISBN 0486142914, 9780486142913

"Dome: a curved roof structure that spans an area on a circular base, producing an equal thrust in all directions. A cross section of the dome can be semicircular, pointed, or ..." page 155 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ano2-nCNPfwC Title Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture, Third Edition Author Ernest Burden Edition 3, illustrated, revised Publisher McGraw Hill Professional, 2012 ISBN 0071772936, 9780071772938

"Dome. In Byzantine architecture, a hemispherical ceiling (vault) over a square space defined by four arches, supported at the corners by pendentives or squinches." page 156 https://books.google.com/books?id=AYpqikYr3Q8C Title Historical Dictionary of Byzantium G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras Author John Hutchins Rosser Edition illustrated Publisher Scarecrow Press, 2012 ISBN 0810875675, 9780810875678

"dome 1. A structure that has a hemispherical roof. 2. A curved layer of rock strata, formed by an upward *fold." page 115 https://books.google.com/books?id=Z6tGBAAAQBAJ Title A Dictionary of Construction, Surveying, and Civil Engineering Oxford Quick Reference Authors Christopher Gorse, David Johnston, Martin Pritchard Publisher OUP Oxford, 2012 ISBN 0191044946, 9780191044946

"Dome a vaulted roof; normally circular or polygonal in plan and semicircular, segmental or pointed in section. See also Cupola and Squinch." page 20 https://books.google.com/books?id=rZ0dgc2iebcC Title Illustrated Dictionary of Building Author Peter Brett Edition 2, reprint, revised Publisher Routledge, 2012 ISBN 1135138567, 9781135138561

"Dome 1 a hollow, flattened or raised hemispherical roof structure, often of masonry, which rests on a circular, square, or polygonal base. See Types included as separate entries are listed below: *bulbous dome, see onion dome; drum dome; *half dome; *melon dome, see umbrella dome; *onion dome; *parachute dome, see umbrella dome; *pendentive dome; *pumpkin dome, see umbrella dome; *sail dome, sail vault; *saucer dome; *semi dome, see half dome; *umbrella dome. 2 see domelight." page 143 https://books.google.com/books?id=7PXEeoS88lQC Title Architect's Illustrated Pocket Dictionary Authors Nikolas Davies, Erkki Jokiniemi Publisher Routledge, 2012 ISBN 1136444068, 9781136444067

"dome 1. A hemispherical roof such as that commonly seen on government structures. 2. A rectangular pan form used in two-way joist or waffle concrete floor construction." page ??? https://books.google.com/books?id=wHXhWzmEKMgC Title RSMeans Illustrated Construction Dictionary Author RSMeans Publisher John Wiley & Sons, 2012 ISBN 1118392388, 9781118392386

"A structure that can be either circular in plan, or oval, hexagonal, octagonal, or a combination of these forms. It may have a high profile, or be hemispherical, or flattened." page 151 https://books.google.com/books?id=Te2dAAAAQBAJ Title The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Art and Architecture Editors Tom Devonshire Jones, Linda Murray, Peter Murray Edition illustrated Publisher OUP Oxford, 2013 ISBN 0199680272, 9780199680276 https://books.google.com/books?id=Te2dAAAAQBAJ

"Dome 1. A curved roof structure spanning an area; often hemispherical in shape. 2. A vault substantially hemispherical in shape, but sometimes slightly pointed or bulbous; a ceiling of similar form." page ??? https://books.google.com/books?id=kp_DAgAAQBAJ Title Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture Dover Architecture Editor Cyril M. Harris Edition reprint, revised Publisher Courier Corporation, 2013 ISBN 0486132110, 9780486132112

"*Cupola, essentially a species of *vault, constructed on a circular, elliptical, or polygonal *plan, bulbous, segmental, semicircular, or pointed in vertical *section. It can be built on top of a structure the plan of which is identical to that of the dome: if that structure's wall is circular or elliptical it is a drum (often pierced with windows) as in a *rotunda. However, domes usually provide cover for a square- or rectangular-planned building or compartment, so adjustments are made to facilitate the transition from the square to the circular, elliptical, or polygonal base of the cupola or dome. This is achieved by means of pendentives (fragments of a sail-vault, resembling a species of concave, distorted, almost triangular *spandrels, rising up from the corner at the top of the right-angled compartment to the circular or elliptical base of the drum or cupola) or squinches (small arch or series of parallel arches of increasing radius spanning the angle of the square compartment). Both the drum and cupola will have a diameter the same dimension as the side of the square on which the whole structure stands. Types of dome include: calotte: low cupola or saucer dome of segmental vertical section, like a skull-cap; cloister-vault: as domical vault; domical vault: cloister-vault, not a true dome, but formed of four or more (depending on the shape of the base) cells or webs forming groins where they touch vertically and rising to a point; melon: as parachute; Pantheon: low dome on the exterior, often stepped, resembling that of the *Pantheon in Rome, and coffered on the interior, widely copied by Neo-Classical architects; parachute: melon, pumpkin, or umbrella dome standing on a scalloped circular base and formed of individual webs, segmental on plan, joined on groins or ribs. Each web has a concave interior and convex exterior so it resembles a parachute, rather than an umbrella; pumpkin: as parachute; sail dome: dome resembling a billowing sail over a square compartment with its diameter the same dimension as the diagonal instead of the side of the square below, enabling the structure to rise as though on pendentives but continuing without interruption. Pendentives are really part of a sail-dome and themselves are a species of sail-vault; umbrella: as parachute.", James Stevens Curl and Susan Wilson, "The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture", page 236-237. [11] Title The Oxford Dictionary of Architecture Oxford Paperback Reference Oxford Quick Reference Series Authors James Stevens Curl, Susan Wilson Illustrated by James Stevens Curl Contributor Susan Wilson Edition illustrated, revised Publisher Oxford University Press, 2015 ISBN 0199674981, 9780199674985

"A funicular masonry dome experiences no hoop stresses, whether tensile or compressive, so it is always on the verge of bursting. Shallow spheric domes maintain compressive stresses in each course and are therefore more stable than the "ideal" funicular form. Viable non-funicular domes also include Herrero's flat vault at the Escorial, and Mackenzie's 1840 concept of an inverted fan vault." [...] "Masonry domes are often explained as free-standing arches rotated around a central axis, or as half-arches swept between a tension ring at the base and an ocular compression ring at the top. Such concepts aren't entirely inaccurate, but they are far from complete. They undervalue or ignore the circumferential compression in each course upon which the rising dome depends and which remains active in many completed structures. They also tend to ignore the vertical shear resistance that prevents inner and upper portions of the dome from crashing vertically down through outer and lower portions, and the horizontal shear resistance that allows lower parts of the dome to contain the thrust of upper parts. Visualizing the dome as a rotated arch implies that the bedding faces between subsequent courses of masonry need to be more or less normal to the section, which is the case in an arch, but not the case in a dome. Lastly, free-standing arches must be thick enough to contain their funicular. This is not true of domes. That the arch and funicular don't really explain of the structural behavior of domes should be clear from real world examples. The conical domes at Pisa and elsewhere, for example, the shallow domes of Byzantium, and the circular vaults at the Escorial are far from funicular. None of them would succeed if "un-rotated" into arches." pages 745-746 https://books.google.com/books?id=DhANDgAAQBAJ Title Structures and Architecture: Beyond their Limits Editor Paulo J. da Sousa Cruz Publisher CRC Press, 2016 ISBN 1317549961, 9781317549963

"The dome may be regarded as the three-dimensional counterpart of the arch. In its true circular form, a vertical arch is rotated around a vertical axis and sweeps out, at every level, a continuous circular horizontal ring. Loads can be transmitted both along the meridian lines of the vertical arches and around the horizontal rings." page 174 https://books.google.com/books?id=9RJaCwAAQBAJ Title The Macmillan Encyclopaedia of Architecture & Technological Change Editor Pedro Guedes Publisher Springer, 2016 ISBN 1349046973, 9781349046973

"The dome, which is created from an arch turned on its axis 360 degrees, is traditionally considered one of the most important Ancient Roman architectural inventions." page 123 [12] Title Historical Dictionary of Architecture Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts Author Allison Lee Palmer Edition 2 Publisher Rowman & Littlefield, 2016 ISBN 1442263091, 9781442263093

"Surprisingly, the scientific definitions for the dome seem to be more of an approach than a certainty. One speaks of a »spherically formed roof over a predominantly round floor plan without bending stress«, an »ambiguous, bended vaulting of a room«, or »spherical vaults spanning a circular or quadratic room« whose »arched surfaces result from a semi-circular, elliptical, parabolic, or pointed arch being turned completely around a vertical axis or extending from a polygon of capping pieces«. It almost seems as if the secretive, incomprehensible nature of this construction element is still with us to this day – although over time, of course, it has been calculated and measured down to the smallest detail. After all, is it not a wonder that tonnes of stone can appear to float in the air? That gravity seems to have been counteracted, and tiny people like us can stand below them while looking into the »magic eye« of this gigantic heaven? It can all be explained in technical terms: domes are a group of arches with a single vertex. Domes are raised above a circular, oval, or quadratic floor plan whose entire circumference serves as an abutment. In the case of domes constructed over circular floor plans, the principle is quite clear. Domes atop quadratic floor plans require more complex solutions, for in these instances the angular corners must be rounded." page 12 https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Natascha_Meuser/publication/324919128_Monumental_Heritage_Public_Relations/links/5aeb1e5ea6fdcc03cd910590/Monumental-Heritage-Public-Relations.pdf The Weightlessness of Stone:Domes: a fascinating construction element, Beatrice Härig, Translation: Nicola Morris and Mark Willard Monumental Heritage: Strategies, Public Relations and Digital Media, Natascha Meuser © 2018 Hochschule Anhalt, Dessau (2. Auflage) Fachbereich Architektur, Facility Management und Geoinformation Postanschrift: Postfach 2215, 06818 Dessau-Roßlau Hausanschrift: Bauhausstraße 5, 06846 Dessau-Roßlau

"Definition of dome (Entry 1 of 2) 1: archaic : a stately building : MANSION 2: a large hemispherical roof or ceiling 3: a natural formation or structure that resembles the dome or cupola of a building", Merriam-Webster Dictionary, "Dome". [13] Last Updated 12 Jul 2020

"a concave roof, usually hemispherical or elliptical, on a circular or polygonal base."[14]

Terminology text

Across the ancient world, curved-roof structures that would today be called domes had a number of different names reflecting a variety of shapes, traditions, and symbolic associations. The shapes derived from traditions of pre-historic shelters made from various impermanent pliable materials and were only later reproduced as vaulting in more durable materials. The hemispherical shape often associated with domes today derives from Greek geometry and Roman standardization, but other shapes persisted, including a pointed and bulbous tradition inherited by some early Islamic mosques.

Academic study of the topic has been controversial and confused by inconsistent definitions, such as those for cloister vaults and domical vaults. Dictionary definitions are often more general and less precise. The fields of engineering and architecture have also lacked common language for domes, with engineering focused on structural behavior and architecture focused on form and symbolism. The additional of new materials and structural systems in the 20th century has allowed also for large dome-shaped structures that deviate from the traditional compressive structural behavior of masonry domes and has expanded the popular usage of "dome" to mean "almost any long-span roofing system". Generally-speaking, the "term 'dome' is non-specific, a blanket-word to describe an hemispherical or similar spanning element." Definitions range from hemispheres alone to a list of vaults with a variety of plan and section shapes.

Gallery

Early

Model of the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb at the Hong Kong Museum of History.

Roman-Byzantine and Armenian

~50 BC
~14 AD
~450 AD
300s AD
300s AD
536 AD
547 AD
~740
907 North Church of Constantine Lips
Cupola of St. Hripsime, Etchmiadzin, Armenia.
View of the central dome of the parekklesion with Christ Pantocrator surrounded by the prophets of the Old Testament
~1012

Pre-Islamic Persian

[1]

Early Islamic

Emir Qurqumas complex, Northern Cemetery, Cairo
Cordoba 976 AD
Cordoba 976 AD
Cordoba 976 AD
Dôme de la Grande mosquée de Kairouan
1354 Alhambra
1391 Alhambra
1427

Medieval western Europe

Domes in the Byzantine tradition

~450 AD
~500 AD
520 AD
~1160 Palermo
Solignac - Abbatiale Saint-Pierre - Nef
1301 Sant'Antonio Basilica, Padua, Veneto, Italy.

Cloister vaults

805 AD
800s Milan, transformed in 15th century
1067 Acqui Terme
1075 San Nazaro
1080 Speyer
1181 Worms
1099 Milano - S. Ambrogio
1128 Angouleme
1155 San Michele in Pavia, Italy
1128 Florence baptistery
1167 Cremona baptistery

Ribbed domes

~1150
~1150
~1150
late 1100s to early 1200s
1250-1300 Coutances, France
Strasbourg
Strasbourg
France - Provence - Château de Simiane-la-Rotonde
1185 Round Church, London
~1250 Catedral de Santa Maria (Tarragona)
~1350 Valencia
1450-1500 Evreux, France

Late Medieval Italian

1118
~1224 Siena, Italy
~1390s depiction of future dome of Florence Cathedral

Russian

The Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir.
Church of Intercession upon Nerl (1165), Bogolyubovo, Russia.

Renaissance

Genoa, Carignano district, the Basilica of Santa Maria Assunta di Carignano
San Giorgio Maggiore in Venezia.
Church of the Most Holy Redeemer, Venice, Italia

Later

San Lorenzo in Turin
Innenansicht des Doms St. Blasien
1873
1881 Devonshire Royal Hospital
Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II Milan May 2009
La Galleria Umberto I a Napoli.
The interior of Leadenhall Market in London from the Illustrated London News, 1881.
Paris
1904 Budapest
1905
"Germania", Modell "Große Halle"
Montreal Biosphère in Montreal, Canada
Civic Arena
BC Place
RCA Dome
Metrodome
Tokyo Dome
Carrier Dome
Burswood Dome
Silverdome
Georgia Dome
Millennium Dome
Seoul Olympic Park Gym 2
Seoul Olympic Park Gym 1
Astrodome
Superdome
Kingdome
Olympic Stadium, Montreal
Skydome
Oita Stadium
Tropicana field
Fukuoka Dome
Braced dome
Braced dome
Schwedler dome