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Traditional models, like Timothy Baldwin and Kevin Ford (1988), define transfer of training as the generalization and maintenance of knowledge and skills learned in training to one's job.[1][2] However, more recent models have begun to challenge traditional definitions of transfer of training as the broad application of trained behaviors.[3] Instead, models like Elwood Holton's Conceptual Evaluation Model[4] and Elwood Holton and Timothy Baldwin's Conceptual Model of the Transfer Process,[5] have used specific measures of performance, both at the individual and organizational levels, to define transfer of training.[4][5] As a result of theoretical differences, differences have arisen in the consideration of factors that influence the transfer process.

However, disagreement remains within the current literature over whether transfer of training should be assessed on the basis of individual learning or organizational performance.[6]

Transfer of training is a term commonly used within Industrial and Organizational Psychology to refer to the application of knowledge and skills acquired during training to a targeted job or role.[7] For example, after completing a safety course, transfer of training occurs when employees engage in safety behaviors on-the-job.[7] Transfer of training is a specific application of the theory of transfer of learning.[8] Historically, the concept of transfer of training was identified by Edward Thorndike and Robert Sessions Woodworth in 1899 when they observed increases in individuals' cognitive performance after training on an unrelated cognitive task.[9] Today, transfer of training is a goal of many organizations, including businesses and the military, that invest time and money into an increasing number of training programs.[7] Transfer of training provides organizations with a method to measure training effectiveness and identify areas for training improvement.[10]

Types of Transfer of Training

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There are three types of transfer of training:

1.    Positive Transfer- Training increases performance in the targeted job or role. Positive transfer is the goal of most training programs. [11][8]

2.    Negative Transfer- Training decreases performance in the targeted job or role.[11][8]

3.    Zero Transfer- Training neither increases nor decreases performance in the targeted job or role.[8]

Factors that Influence the Transfer of Training

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Within the current research, there has been a lack of consensus regarding what factors contribute to the positive transfer of training.[12][13] Many of these contradictory findings arise from different conceptualizations of transfer of training.[14] Traditional models, like Timothy Baldwin and Kevin Ford (1988), define transfer of training as the generalization and maintenance of knowledge and skills learned in training to one's job.[14][12][15] Some more recent models have begun to challenge traditional definitions of transfer of training as the broad application of trained behaviors.[14] Instead, models like Elwood Holton's Conceptual Evaluation Model and Elwood Holton and Timothy Baldwin's Conceptual Model of the Transfer Process, have used specific measures of performance, both at the individual and organizational levels, to define transfer of training.[16][17] Despite inconsistencies and theoretical differences within the literature, several factors have been shown to consistently impact the positive transfer of training.[12] Following the structure of Baldwin and Ford's model and subsequent meta-analytic findings, factors that influence the positive transfer of training can be divided into three categories: trainee characteristics, work environment, and training strategies.[15][12]

Trainee Characteristics

  1. Cognitive Ability: Higher cognitive ability typically leads to more a positive transfer of training. [13][12]
  2. Self-efficacy: Higher self-efficacy typically leads to higher levels of positive transfer of training.[13][12]
  3. Motivation: Individuals with a higher motivation to learn tend to experience higher levels of positive transfer of training.[13][12]

Work Environment

  1. Transfer climate: Individuals exhibit higher levels of positive transfer in environments that encourage transfer behaviors through mechanisms of feedback and support.[13][12][8]
  2. Support: Support from supervisors and peers leads to higher levels of positive transfer. [13][12]
  3. Opportunity to Perform: Work environments that encourage the performance of trained behaviors promote higher positive transfer of training.[18][12]

Training Strategies

  1. Similarity: A high degree of similarity between the training environment and work environment increases the positive transfer of training.[8][12][15]
  2. Behavioral Modeling: A training technique based on Albert Bandura's theory of social learning that involves explanations, demonstrations, and active learning exercises. The use of this technique is associated with increased positive transfer of training.[18][12]
  3. Error-based examples: Training that focuses on how to deal with problems and learn from errors is typically associated with higher positive transfer of training.[18][12]


  1. ^ Yamnill, Siriporn; McLean, Gary N. (2001). "Theories supporting transfer of training". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 12 (2): 195. doi:10.1002/hrdq.7.
  2. ^ Baldwin, Timothy T.; Ford, J. Kevin (1988). "Transfer of Training: A Review of Directions for Future Research". Personnel Psychology. 41 (1): 63–105. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x. ISSN 0031-5826.
  3. ^ Yamnill, Siriporn; McLean, Gary N. (2001). "Theories supporting transfer of training". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 12 (2): 195. doi:10.1002/hrdq.7.
  4. ^ a b Holton, Elwood F. (1996). "The flawed four-level evaluation model". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 7 (1): 5–21. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920070103.
  5. ^ a b Holton III, Elwood F.; Baldwin, Timothy T. (2003). Improving Learning Transfer in Organizations. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7879-7187-8. OCLC 437250604.
  6. ^ Yamnill, Siriporn; McLean, Gary N. (2001). "Theories supporting transfer of training". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 12 (2): 195. doi:10.1002/hrdq.7.
  7. ^ a b c Ford, J. Kevin, "Transfer of Training", Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, SAGE Publications, Inc., ISBN 978-1-4129-2470-2, retrieved 2020-04-03
  8. ^ a b c d e f Goldstein, Irwin L. (1986). Training in organizations: needs assessment, development, and evaluation. Internet Archive. Monterey, Calif. : Brooks/Cole Pub. Co.
  9. ^ Fancher, R.E.; Rutherford, A (1996). "Ch.8: William James and Psychology in America". Pioneers of psyhchology. New York: WW Norton. pp. 246–283.
  10. ^ Blaiwes, Arthur S.; Puig, Joseph A.; Regan, James J. (1973). "Transfer of Training and the Measurement of Training Effectiveness". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 15 (6): 523–533. doi:10.1177/001872087301500604. ISSN 0018-7208.
  11. ^ a b Levy, P.E. (2001). Industrial/Organizational Psychology: Understanding the workplace. New York, New York: Worth Publishers.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Grossman, Rebecca; Salas, Eduardo (2011). "The transfer of training: what really matters: The transfer of training". International Journal of Training and Development. 15 (2): 103–120. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2419.2011.00373.x.
  13. ^ a b c d e f Blume, Brian D.; Ford, J. Kevin; Baldwin, Timothy T.; Huang, Jason L. (2010). "Transfer of Training: A Meta-Analytic Review". Journal of Management. 36 (4): 1065–1105. doi:10.1177/0149206309352880. ISSN 0149-2063.
  14. ^ a b c Yamnill, Siriporn; McLean, Gary N. (2001). "Theories supporting transfer of training". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 12 (2): 195. doi:10.1002/hrdq.7.
  15. ^ a b c Baldwin, Timothy T.; Ford, J. Kevin (1988). "Transfer of Training: A Review of Directions for Future Research". Personnel Psychology. 41 (1): 63–105. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1988.tb00632.x. ISSN 0031-5826.
  16. ^ Holton, Elwood F. (1996). "The flawed four-level evaluation model". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 7 (1): 5–21. doi:10.1002/hrdq.3920070103.
  17. ^ Holton III, Elwood F.; Baldwin, Timothy T. (2003). Improving Learning Transfer in Organizations. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-7879-7187-8. OCLC 437250604.
  18. ^ a b c Burke, Lisa A.; Hutchins, Holly M. (2007). "Training Transfer: An Integrative Literature Review". Human Resource Development Review. 6 (3): 263–296. doi:10.1177/1534484307303035. ISSN 1534-4843.
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