Life-cycle engineering (LCE) is a sustainability-oriented engineering methodology that takes into account the comprehensive technical, environmental, and economic impacts of decisions within the product life cycle. Alternatively it can be defined as “sustainability-oriented product development activities within the scope of one to several product life cycles.”[1] LCE requires analysis to quantify sustainability, setting appropriate targets for environmental impact. The application of complementary methodologies and technologies enables engineers to apply LCE to fulfill environmental objectives.
LCE was first introduced in the 1980’s as a bottom-up engineering approach, and widely adopted in the 1990’s as a systematic ‘cradle-to-grave’ approach[2]. The goal of LCE is to find the best possible compromise in product engineering[3] to meet the needs of society while minimizing environmental impacts[4]. The methodology is closely related to, and overlaps with, life-cycle assessment (LCA) to assess environmental impacts; and life cycle costing (LCC) to assess economic impacts.
The product life cycle
The product life cycle is formally defined by ISO 14040 as the “consecutive and interlinked stages of a product system, from raw material acquisition or generation from natural resources to final disposal.”[5] Comprehensive life cycle analysis considers both upstream and downstream processes.[6] Upstream processes include "the extraction and production of raw materials and manufacturing," and downstream processes include product disposal (such as recycling or sending waste to landfill).[1] LCE aims to reduce the negative consequences of consumption and ensure a good quality standard of living for future generations, by reducing waste and making product development and engineering processes more efficient and sustainable.
The first step in completing LCA or LCE is determining the appropriate sustainability thresholds to use as environmental targets for the product system. The proposed Lyngby Framework for LCE is a combined top-down and bottom-up approach for LCE that uses targets based on planetary boundaries. Planetary boundaries can be used to establish limits for the earth’s carrying capacity, defining upper thresholds for the environmental system.[7]
The IPAT equation [Impact = Population (or Volume) x Affluence (or Consumption) x Technology (or Consumption per Unit Produced)] is an accepted method for quantifying the impact of consumption. LCE can be leveraged to manage total environmental impact by addressing the technology effect (single product and product life cycle) and the volume effect (anticipated volume growth as consumption and population increase) of product engineering[4]. Impacts are considered within the context of technical boundary conditions to verify the feasibility of proposed solutions.
Complementary Methodologies and Technologies[edit]
Modern technology provides innovative new opportunities for LCE:
A Visual Analytics (VA) Workflow DiagramVisual analytics(VA) integrates visualization and data analytics to process large, dynamic data sets and solve complex problems. Researchers gather and synthesize historical and real-time data and information flow across all life cycle stages including impacts from upstream and downstream stages. LCA uses quantified data to build predictive (i.e. simulation-based methods, scenario analysis) and visual models to guide decision-making. By simplifying the presentation of models/results and tailoring visualizations to the audience, VA makes it easier for people to interact with data, enabling collaboration and improved knowledge transfer.[8]
The Reality-Virtuality Continuum showing Mixed Reality (MR)Mixed reality (MR) allows interaction with real and virtual objects in a mixed reality environment, transforming how people interact with data. In the interpretation phase of LCA, where inventories and process impacts are considered, MR facilitates interaction with complex data sets to investigate scenarios and validate assumptions. It has the potential to break down barriers that inhibit the flow of information.[9]
Integrated process design is a methodology that involves identifying and integrating processes throughout the entire life cycle with the objective of improving performance. Using this information, analysis identifies enhancements, redefining information exchange and increasing interoperability between systems. The proposed integrated approach promotes synergies between fields like life cycle engineering and product design to improve performance compared to the current product life cycle.[3] These systems and processes need to be integrated to break down barriers when “gathering & synthesizing information flows across life cycle stages.”[10]
Key themes in LCE are economic, social, environmental and technological. These themes are interlinking and can be influenced by life cycle engineering.
Theme
Factors relating to product life cycle engineering
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^ abHauschild, M. (2018). Life cycle assessment: theory and practice. Published in Switzerland by Springer International Publishing AG, 2018.
^Alting, D.L., & Jøgensen, D.J. (1993). The life cycle concept as a basis for sustainable industrial production. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, vol. 42, pp. 163-167, 1993.
^ abPenciuc, D. et al. (2015). Product life cycle management approach for integration of engineering design and life cycle engineering. Artificial Intelligence for Engineering Design, Analysis and Manufacturing (2016), 30, 379–389.
^ abKara, S., Hauschild, M., Herrmann, C. (2018). Target-driven life cycle engineering: staying within the planetary boundaries. 25th CIRP Life cycle engineering conference, 30 April - 2 May 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark.
^ISO 14040 - International Organization for Standardization, Environmental Management: Life Cycle Assessment: Principles and Framework, vol. 14040: ISO, 2006.
^Hellweg, S., Mila i Canals, L. (2014). “Emerging approaches, challenges and opportunities in life cycle assessment.” Science, vol. 344, pp. 1109–1113, 2014.
^Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, S., Cornell, I., Fetzer, E., Bennett, M. et al. (2015). “Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet.” Science, vol. 347, p. 1259855, 2015.
^Kaluza, A., Gellrich, S., Cerdas, F., Thiede, S., Herrmann, C. (2018). Life cycle engineering based on visual analytics. 25th CIRP Life cycle engineering conference, 30 April - 2 May 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark.
^Juraschek et al. (2018). Exploring the potentials of mixed reality for life cycle engineering. 25th CIRP Life cycle engineering conference, 30 April - 2 May 2018, Copenhagen, Denmark.
^Ramanujan, D. Visual Analytics tools for sustainable lifecycle design: Current Status , Challenges , and Future Opportunities. (2017).
