User:Lackes.uw/Creoles of color
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[edit]Historical Context
[edit]Créole is derived from latin and means to "create", and was first used in the "New World" by the Portuguese to describe slaves of African descent but was later used by the Spanish during colonial occupation to mean any inhabitant of the Gulf Coast region.[1] The term has taken on different meanings historically, but it has consistently been used to refer to white people, mixed-race people, and both free-born and enslaved black people.[2] The "of color" is considered a necessary qualifier, as "Creole"(Créole) does not convey any racial connotation.
During French colonization, social order was divided into two distinct categories: (black) slave and whites. These distinctions were supported by laws that regulated interracial conduct within the colony. An example of such laws are the Louisiana Black Codes[3]. Though interracial relations were legally forbidden, or heavily restricted, they were not uncommon. Mixed-race Creoles of color became identified as a distinct ethnic group, Gens de couleur libres (free persons of color), by the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1810.[2] Some have suggested certain social markers of creole identity as being of Catholic faith, having a strong work ethic, being an avid fan of literature, and being fluent in French-- standard French, Creole and Cajun are all considered acceptable versions of the French language. [4] For many, being a descendant of the Gens de couleur libres is an identity marker specific to Creoles of color.[2]
Migration
[edit]First Wave
[edit]The first wave of creole migration occurred between 1840 and 1890 with the majority of migrants fleeing to ethnic-dominant outskirts of larger US cities and abroad where race was more fluid. [5]
Second Wave
[edit]The reclassification of Creoles of color as black prompted the second migratory wave of Creoles of color between 1920 and 1940.[6]
Education
[edit]It was common for wealthy francophone Gens de couleur to study in Europe, with some opting to not return due to greater liberties in France.[7] When not educated abroad, or in whites-only schools in the United States by virtue of passing, Creoles of color were often homeschooled or enrolled in private schools. [8] These private schools were often financed and staffed by affluent Creoles of color.[9] For example, L'Institute Catholique was financed by Madame Marie Couvent with writers Armand Lanusse and Jonnai Questy serving as educators.[7]
In 1850 it was determined that 80% of all Gens de couleur libres were literate; a figure significantly higher than the white population of Louisiana at the time. [7]
Contributions to the arts
[edit]Literature
[edit]During the antebellum period, well-educated francophone gens de couleur libres contributed extensively to literary collections, such as Les Cenelles, with a significant portion of these works dedicated to describing the conditions of their enslaved compatriots. [7] One example of such texts is Le Mulatre (The Mulatto) by Victor Séjour, a Creole of color. Other themes approached aspects of love, religion and many texts were likened to French romanticism. [7] In daily newspapers locally and abroad, pieces written by Creoles of color were prominent. [5]Even during the ban on racial commentary during the antebellum period, pieces written by these creoles reformulated existing french themes to subtly critique race relations in Louisiana, while still gaining in popularity among all readers. [5]
- ^ "The Creole Community in The United States of America, a story". African American Registry. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
- ^ a b c Dubois, Sylvie; Melançon, Megan (2000). "Creole Is, Creole Ain't: Diachronic and Synchronic Attitudes toward Creole Identity in Southern Louisiana". Language in Society. 29 (2): 237–258. ISSN 0047-4045.
- ^ BlackPast (2007-07-28). "(1724) Louisiana's Code Noir •". Retrieved 2021-11-26.
- ^ DORMON, James H. (1992). "Louisiana's "Creoles of Color": Ethnicity, Marginality, and Identity". Social Science Quarterly. 73 (3): 615–626. ISSN 0038-4941.
- ^ a b c Brosman, Catharine Savage (2013-10-01), "Poetry by Mid-Nineteenth-Century Free People of Color", Louisiana Creole Literature, University Press of Mississippi, pp. 80–92, retrieved 2021-12-13
- ^ Jolivétte, Andrew (2005-01-01). "Migratory Movement: The Politics of Ethnic Community (Re) Construction Among Creoles of Color, 1920-1940". Ethnic Studies Review. 28 (2): 37–60. doi:10.1525/esr.2005.28.2.37. ISSN 1555-1881.
- ^ a b c d e "Afro-creole literature from 19th Century Louisiana". french.centenary.edu. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
- ^ "Preview unavailable - ProQuest". www.proquest.com. Retrieved 2021-12-06.
- ^ Ochs, Stephen J. (2000). A Black patriot and a white priest : André Cailloux and Claude Paschal Maistre in Civil War New Orleans. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-2531-1. OCLC 42772101.