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Restrained Manhood

Restrained Manhood is a concept of masculinity in context of American expansionism in the mid 19th century, particularly between the time of the US-Mexico and Civil wars. Restrained men based their outlook on morality and opposed aggressive expansion. Believers of restrained manhood were influenced by religious faith and a sense of responsibility. Their belief was that Manifest Destiny could be achieved peacefully by spreading social, cultural and religious institutions, which they found to be superior. Those who lived a restrained lifestyle also supported domestic roles for females. < ref> Greenberg, Amy. Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. </ref> The opposing belief, martial manhood, promoted masculinity in its most rugged and aggressive form, and advocated for American expansion. Martial manhood defined manliness by characteristics of physical strength. Many saw martial manhood as a sign of a mighty nation.

Though these two ideals were rooted in personal choices, they had a major impact on how the US government approached the issue of expansion and Manifest Destiny.

Manifest Destiny:

Manifest Destiny was the 19th century belief that the United States was supposed to expand across the continent onto unchartered territories. John O’Sullivan, a democrat leader and editor of The Morning Post, a New York newspaper, explained in his writing what many expansionists believed—that westward expansion was a God-given right and that Americans would experience even greater liberty in doing so.

Manifest Destiny was not an official government policy, although it did encourage some legislation. It was heavily advertised in newspapers and other outlets, encouraging Americans to fulfill their destiny of westward expansion.

Manifest Destiny led to the passage of the Homestead Act of 1862 which “offered 160 acres of free land to any adult U.S. citizen or any adult person intending to become a citizen. A person simply had to make a claim. The main occupation of most people in the late 1800s was farming. An offer of free land meant that citizens of all races and both sexes could establish farms of their own.” Americans were offered a homestead of 160 acres of undeveloped land west of the Mississippi River. It was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln and allowed anyone above the age of 21 who had never taken up arms against the government to purchase land.

Manifest Destiny is the justification used by the Democrat-Republicans to explain the US-Mexico war.

It meant different things to Americans and was interpreted in many different ways. Author Amy Kaplan reiterates the idea that changing views of masculinity had a major impact on the way the United States’ government and people responded to the possibilities of territorial expansion. This is significant because at this point in time, the unity of the United States was under threat.

Issues in Feminism during the Antebellum Era:

The 19th century was crucial for the feminist movement. Domesticity, the idea that women could positively influence society through moral influence on their husbands and children, was the prevalent ideology in terms of American womanhood. Those who followed this ideology also negatively perceived those women who chose to work outside of the home.

Though this type of domestic isolation would seem limiting, many women embraced their power within the home and used it to effect things outside of it. Women had immense influence on reform movements, including Women’s Rights, evangelical and anti-slavery reform. Women eventually were accepted into The Second Party System as well as the Whig Party. The shift in feminine influence was a contributing factor to the revolutionizing of the concept of masculinity.

“A Crisis of Manhood”:

The mid 19th century called for a reevaluation of manhood for most Americans. The beginning of the century valued manhood which focused on intellect. The end of the century defined manhood as “primitive”, in which Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution inspired much of the criteria. Men were encouraged to “embrace their animal nature” in order to successfully compete with men of other classes and races.

However, hegemony did not exist during the middle of the 19th century. Instead, men fell into separate categories depending on how they defined manhood. These categories ranged from urban workers to evangelical Christians, all with different criteria that added up to manhood. And although it would be easy to classify them as so, these certain views on manhood were not reflective of class. However, by 1848, two ideologies were competing for the spotlight and became a topic of discussion for many: restrained and martial manhood.

Restrained Manhood:

Restrained manhood can be loosely defined as valued in morality. It was driven strongly by faith and highlighted male characteristics like responsibility and bravery. They considered women the moral compass of the household and aggressively favored domesticity. They considered this to be “true womanhood”. Restrained men were evangelical Protestants who strongly identified with their families and personal success in business. Restrained men did not participate in sports with urban workers, as they were generally turned off by the physical exertion and possibility of violence. These men also refrained from drinking excessively and supported the criminalization of alcohol. Business was an area of expertise for those who considered themselves restrained men.

In terms of Politics

Restrained men were very prevalent in political parties and especially active in the Whig, Know-Nothing and Republican parties.

The Whigs

The Whigs were known to be anti-expansionists so it was common for restrained men to align themselves with the politics of the party. Abraham Lincoln was a Whig, and historians credit his political choice with his “quest for a better life.” Lincoln avoided alcohol, guns and violence, universal manhood suffrage and believed women should have the right to vote. At the Whig State convention on September 29, 1847 Daniel Webster spoke about the Whig’s position on the Mexican War and expanding territory: “We are, in my opinion, in a most unnecessary and therefore unjustifiable war….I should deprecate any great extension of our dominions (even if free)….I think we have a very large and ample domain. I think that thus far we have a sort of identity or similarity of character that holds us together pretty well, from the Penobscot to the Gulf of Mexico. I do not know how we can preserve that feeling of common country if we extend it to California, or, or aught I know, to the South Pole. I apprehend that in a republican government you must have a great similarity of character….I hope that the principles of liberty, as we have experienced them with so much advantage, will spread over the world; but I am not sure that it is best for everybody to receive our reforms. Nor am I desirous to impose our forms on any people by force….I say at once that unless the President of the United States shall make out a case that the war is prosecuted for no purpose of acquisition of dominion, for no purpose not connected directly with the safety of the Union, then they out not to grant any further supplies.”

In terms of expansionism

Those who subscribed to restrained manhood were not in favor of territorial expansion and rather valued domesticity. They agreed that Manifest Destiny was yet to be fulfilled but believed that aggressive expansion was not the way. Instead they believed in the spreading of social and religious institutions.

In terms of slavery

Restrained men were generally abolitionists. While martial men valued dominance, restrained men tried to live by the teachings of Jesus Christ and therefore, many restrained men viewed slavery as immoral. “Restrained men were manly, in the nineteenth-century sense of the term. Their manhood derived from being morally upright, reliable, and brave.

Martial Manhood:

Martial manhood offered the opposite outlook on masculinity, valuing things like physical strength, a sense of adventure and domination of women. Morality was not a concern for the martial man, as embracing their physical being was a priority.

Martial men believed women should be domesticated however they did not view them as a moral compass as the restrained men did. “Martial men believed that the masculine qualities of strength, aggression and even violence better defined a true man than did the firm and upright manliness of restrained men.” Martial men were also very involved in politics, though they tended to float towards the Democratic Party. Not only was expansion favored among those who subscribed to martial manhood, but it was also felt to embody their manliness. For martial men, westward expansion, as well as the frontier in Latin America, symbolized opportunity. As many laborers lost their jobs during the economic transition, they had no work to sustain their lives. The frontier offered a space where their natural skills were valued. Kaplan states how some academic sources explain that the support of martial manhood was “especially important in supporting filibustering ventures, which were outside the law and not officially sanctioned by the state, but which still represented to many the power of a mighty nation.”

References

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