User:Mharrsch/Books/GallicWars/Roman Training

Training

Over time the military system changed its equipment and roles, but throughout the course of Roman history, it always remained a disciplined and professional war machine. Soldiers carried out training common to every army, from initial muster, arms and weapons drill, formation marching and tactical exercises. The typical training regime consisted of gymnastics and swimming, to build physical strength and fitness, fighting with armatura (which were wooden weapons), to learn and master combat techniques and long route marches with full battle gear and equipment to build stamina, endurance and to accustom them to the hardships of campaigns.

Combat training exercises consisted of thrusting with a wooden gladius into a quintain (wooden dummy) while wearing full armor, and sparring with one another. Legionaries were trained to thrust with their gladii because they could defend themselves behind their large shields (scuta) while stabbing the enemy. The Romans were well aware that a wound of only 3 cm or 4 cm could cause death, so they emphasized quick, stabbing techniques to vital areas or between gaps in armor. Contemporary artistic depictions of Roman soldiers fighting, including Trajan's Column in Rome, depict them as standing with their left foot and shield forward with their right foot back and turned outwards ninety degrees. Some believe this indicates a boxing-like style of fighting where the shield in the left is used to jab and harass the enemy while the sword in the right is used to deliver the final blow. In all likelihood however it is probably designed to allow for attacking on the pass similar to later medieval European arts which use a similar stance for armoured combat. Other training exercises taught the legionary to obey commands and assume battle formations. At the end of training the legionary had to swear an oath of loyalty to the SPQR (Senatus Populusque Romanus, or the Senate and the Roman People) or later to the emperor. The soldier was then given a diploma and sent off to fight for his living and the glory and honor of Rome.

Provisioning

As with any military organization, training soldiers/armies require a number of things and could prove to be quite costly in the long run.

The Romans understood this concept very well and realized that training soldiers could include paying for his rations [food], his salary, his armor, his armaments [weapons], and a soldier’s honorarium [which was paid to those who received honorable discharges]. With all this in perspective, the Romans realized each individual soldier was a far too valuable resource to waste. The Romans knew the costs they were incurring for each soldier had to be quite similar on their enemy’s side. So the Romans developed a tactic that could cause a significant setback or even defeat to their enemy; while only creating a limited risk to their own soldiers. This tactic was known as “Resource Tactics.” Just as one might concur, standing armies run on their stomachs and their equipment, and both require regular supplies. The idea of "Resource Tactics" could ultimately cut off their opponents from resources in one of three ways:

1. The first way the Romans conducted this tactic was to attack the resource location themselves. Once they conquered a territory they would secure as much resources as they could handle. This allowed the Romans to restock their own supply and prevent the available resources from falling into their opponents hands.

2. The second way the Romans conducted this tactic was to actually intercept the supplies while in transit. The Romans would identify main supply routes of their enemies and create a stopping point . Once the enemy was stopped, the Romans would ransack the supply, which would drastically reduce the amount of supplies that would reach the enemy.

3. The final approach, and quite possibly the most famous way the Romans conducted this tactic was a “siege” [siege - a military operation in which troops surround a place and cut off all outside access to force surrender]. While conducting the siege, the Romans would typically build a wall around the existing city to help control the enemy. This wall would be built out of reach of the archers and would prevent the enemy from escaping. Once the Romans completed the wall, they would use catapults, ballistas, onagers, and trebuchets to hurl rocks, spears, and other objects from safe distances. The ongoing siege would eventually cause the city/fort to run out of resources, thus causing the opponents to die off or surrender; giving the Romans an easy victory.

The basic principle behind this tactic was to disrupt their enemies resources while increase their own personal resources. Without a regular supply of food, water, and other supplies, armies will begin to starve or dehydrate, which lead to low morale or killing of fellow soldiers. This in turn would cause the opposing Army to fail its overarching goal and fall apart.

A Legion On The Move

A legionary typically carried around 27 kilograms (60 pounds) of armor, weapons, and equipment. This load consisted of armor, sword, shield, two pila (one heavy, one light) and 15 days' food rations. There were also tools for digging and constructing a castra, the legions' fortified base camp. One writer recreates the following as to Caesar's army in Gaul: Each soldier arranged his heavy pack on a T or Y-shaped rod, borne on his left shoulder. Shields were protected on the march with a hide cover. Each legionnaire carried about 5 days worth of wheat, pulses or chickpeas, a flask of oil and a mess kit with a dish, cup, and utensil. Personal items might include a dyed horsehair crest for the helmet, a semi-water resistant oiled woolen cloak, socks and breeches for cold weather and a blanket. Entrenchment equipment included a shallow wicker basket for moving earth, a spade and/or pick-axe like dolabra, or turf cutter, and two wooden staves to construct the next camp palisade. All these were arranged in the marching pack toted by each infantryman.

Fighters travelled in groups of 8, and each octet was sometimes assigned a mule. The mule carried a variety of equipment and supplies, including a mill for grinding grain, a small clay oven for baking bread, cooking pots, spare weapons, waterskins, and tents. A Roman century had a complement of 10 mules, each attended by two non-combatants who handled foraging and water supply. A century might be supported by wagons in the rear, each drawn by 6 mules, and carrying tools, nails, water barrels, extra food and the tent and possessions of the centurion- commanding officer of the unit.

The legion also carried an artillery detachment with 30 pieces of artillery. This firepower package consisted of 10 stone throwing catapults and 20 bolt-shooting ballista, together with supporting wagons to carry ammunition and spare parts. Bolts were used for targeted fire on human opponents, while stones were used against fortifications or as an area saturation weapon. The catapults were powered by rope and sinew, tightened by ratchet and released by the stored energy. Caesar was to mount these in boats on some operations in Britain, striking fear in the heart of the native opponents according to his writings. Catapults like the scorpion were mobile and could be deployed in defence of camps, field entrenchments and even in the open field.

Initial preparations and movement for battle

The approach march. Once the legion was deployed on an operation, the marching began. The approach to the battlefield was made in several columns, enhancing maneuverability. Typically a strong vanguard preceded the main body, and included scouts, cavalry and light troops. A tribune or other officer often accompanied the vanguard to survey the terrain for possible camp locations. Flank and reconnaissance elements were also deployed to provide the usual covering security. Behind the vanguard came the main body of heavy infantry. Each legion marched as a distinct formation and was accompanied by its own baggage train. The last legion usually provided the rear force, although several recently raised units might occupy this final echelon.

Construction of fortified camps. Legions on a campaign typically established a strong field camp, complete with palisade and a deep ditch, providing a basis for supply storage, troop marshaling and defense. Camps were recreated each time the army moved, and were constructed with a view to both military necessity and religious symbolism. There were always four gateways, connected by two main criss-crossing streets, with the intersection at a concentration of command tents in the center. Space was also made for an altar and religious gathering area. Everything was standardized, from the positioning of baggage, equipment and specific army units, to the duties of officers who were to set up sentries, pickets and orders for the next day's march. Construction could take between 2 to 5 hours with part of the army laboring, while the rest stood guard, depending on the tactical situation. The shape of the camp was generally rectangular, but could vary based on the terrain or tactical situation. A distance of about 60 meters was left clear between the entrenchments and the first row of troop tents. This gap provided space for marshaling the legionnaires for battle and kept the troop area out of enemy missile range. No other ancient army persisted over such a long period in systematic camp construction like the Romans, even if the army rested for only a single day.

Breaking camp and marching. After a regimented breakfast at the allocated time, trumpets were sounded and the camp's tents and huts were dismantled and preparations made for departure. The trumpet then sounded again with the signal for "stand by to march". Mules and wagons of the baggage train would be loaded and units formed up. The camp would then be burned to the ground to prevent its later occupation and use by the enemy. The trumpets would then be sounded for a final time and then the troops asked three times whether they were ready, to which they were expected to shout together "Ready!", before marching off.

Intelligence. Good Roman commanders did not hesitate to exploit useful intelligence, particularly where a siege situation or impending clash in the field was developing. Information was gathered from spies, collaborators, diplomats and envoys, and allies. Intercepted messages during the Second Punic War for example were an intelligence coup for the Romans, and enabled them to dispatch two armies to find and destroy Hasdrubal's Carthaginian force, preventing his reinforcement of Hannibal. Commanders also kept an eye on the situation in Rome since political enemies and rivals could use an unsuccessful campaign to inflict painful career and personal damage. During this initial phase the usual field reconnaissance was also conducted - patrols might be sent out, raids mounted to probe for weaknesses, prisoners snatched, and local inhabitants intimidated.

Morale. If the field of potential battle were near, movement became more careful and more tentative. Several days might be spent in a location studying the terrain and opposition, while the troops were prepared mentally and physically for battle. Pep talks, sacrifices to the gods and the announcements of good omens might be carried out. A number of practical demonstrations might also be undertaken to test enemy reaction as well as to build troop morale. Part of the army might be led out of the camp and drawn up in battle array towards the enemy. If the enemy refused to come out and at least make a demonstration, the commander could claim a morale advantage for his men, contrasting the timidity of the opposition with the resolution of his fighting forces.

Historian Adrian Goldsworthy notes that such tentative pre-battle maneuvering was typical of ancient armies as each side sought to gain maximum advantage before the encounter. During this period, some ancient writers paint a picture of meetings between opposing commanders for negotiation or general discussion, as with the famous pre-clash conversation between Hannibal and Scipio at Zama. But whatever the truth of these discussions, or the flowery speeches allegedly made, the only encounter that ultimately mattered was battle.

Leadership

Command, control and structure

Once the soldier had finished his training he was typically assigned to a legion, the basic mass fighting force. The legion was split into ten sub-units called cohorts, roughly comparable to a modern infantry battalion. The cohorts were further sub-divided into three maniples, which in turn were split into two centuries of about 60-100 men each. The first cohort in a legion was usually the strongest, with the fullest personnel complement and with the most skilled, experienced men. Several legions grouped together made up a distinctive field force or "army". Fighting strength could vary but generally a legion was made up of 4,800 soldiers, 60 centurions, 300 artillerymen, and 100 engineers and artificers, and around 1,600 non-combatants. Each legion was supported by a unit of 300 cavalry, the equites.

Supreme command of either legion or army was by consul or proconsul or a praetor, or in cases of emergency in the Republican era, a dictator. A praetor or a propraetor could only command a single legion and not a consular army, which normally consisted of two legions plus the allies. In the early Republican period it was customary for an army to have dual commands, with different consuls holding the office on alternate days. In later centuries this was phased out in favor of one overall army commander. The legati were officers of senatorial rank who assisted the supreme commander. Tribunes were young men of aristocratic rank who often supervised administrative tasks like camp construction. Centurions (roughly equivalent in rank to today's non-commissioned or junior officers, but functioning as modern captains in field operations) commanded cohorts, maniples and centuries. Specialist groups like engineers and artificers were also used.

Military structure and ranks

An in-depth analysis of ranks, types, and historical units including their evolution over time is beyond the scope of this article. See Structural history of the Roman military and Roman Legion for a detailed breakdown. Below is a very basic summary of the legion's structure and ranks.

Force structure

• Contubernium: "tent unit" of 8 men
• Centuria: 80 men commanded by a centurion
• Cohort: 6 centuries or a total of 480 fighting men. added to these were officers. The first cohort was double strength in terms of manpower, and generally held the best fighting men
• Legion: made up of 10 cohorts
• Field army: a grouping of several legions
• Equites: Each legion was supported by 300 cavalry (equites) , sub-divided into ten turmae
• Auxilia and velites): allied contingents, often providing light infantry and specialist fighting services, like archers, slingers or javelin men. They were usually formed into the light infantry or velites. Auxilia in the Republican period also formed allied heavy legions to complement Roman citizen formations.
• Non-combatant support: generally the men who tended the mules, forage, watering and sundries of the baggage train

Rank summary

• Counsul - elected official with military and/or civil duties, sometimes both
• Praetor - appointed military commander of a legion or grouping of legions
• Legatus legionis - the legateor overall legion commander, usually filled by a senator
• Tribune - young officers, second in command of the legion. Other lesser tribunes served as junior officers
• Prefect - third in command of the legion. There were various types. The Prefectus equitarius commanded a unit of cavalry
• Primus pilus - commanding centurion for the first cohort- the senior centurion of the entire legion
• Centurion - basic commander of the century. Prestige varied based on the cohort they supervised
• Decurio - commander of the cavalry unit or turma
• Decanus- equivalent to a sergeant, commanded 8-man tent party
• Aquilifer - standard bearer of each legion- a position of much prestige
• Signifier - one for each century, handled financial matters and decorations
• Optio- second on command for the centurion
• Cornicen- horn blower or signaler
• Imaginifer - carried standard bearing the emperor's image
• Munifex - basic legion fighter- the lowest of the trained rank and file
• Tirones- new recruit to the legions, a novice

Logistics

Roman logistics were among some of the best in the ancient world over the centuries- from the deployment of purchasing agents to systematically buy provisions during a campaign, to the construction of roads and supply caches, to the rental of shipping if the troops had to move by water. Heavy equipment and material (tents, artillery, extra weapons and equipment, millstones etc.) was moved by pack animal and cart, while troops carried weighty individual packs with them, including staves and shovels for constructing the fortified camps. Typical of all armies, local opportunities were also exploited by troops on the spot, and the fields of peasant farmers unlucky enough to be near the zone of conflict might be stripped to meet army needs. As with most armed forces, an assortment of traders, hucksters, prostitutes and other miscellaneous service providers trailed in the wake of the Roman fighting men.

References